UC-NRLF 


LIBRARY 

OF  THF. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

GIFT  OF" 


BIOLOGY 


THE 


ESSENTIALS    OF    HEALTH 


ON 

ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY,  HYGIENE, 
ALCOHOL,  AND   NARCOTICS 


BY 

CHARLES   H.   STOWELL,  M.D. 

,  t 

LATE  PROFESSOR  OF  HISTOLOGY  AND  MICROSCOPY,  AND  ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR  OP 

PHYSIOLOGY,  UNIVERSITY  OF  MICHIGAN. 

AUTHOR  OF   "STUDENT'S  MANUAL  OF  HISTOLOGY,"  "MICROSCOPICAL  DIAGNOSIS,"  "THE 
STRUCTURE  OF  TEETH,"  "A  HEALTHY  BODY,"  "A  PRIMER  OF  HEALTH,"  ETC. 

LATE  EDITOR  OF  "THE  MICROSCOPE" 
EDITOR  OF  "THE  NATIONAL  MEDICAL  REVIEW." 


FULLY    ILLUSTRATED 
WITH   ORIGINAL   SKETCHES   BY  THE   AUTHOR 


SILVER,   BURDETT    &    COMPANY 
NEW  YORK  .  .  .  BOSTON  .  .  .   CHICAGO 
1899 


DSOLOGY 
LIBRARY 


T1I7E  have  examined  the  schoool  text-book  entitled  "THE  ESSENTIALS 
^  *      or  HEALTH,"  by  Doctor  Charles  H.  Stowell. 

As  it  faithfully  teaches  the  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  other 
narcotics  in  connection  with  relative  physiology  and  hygiene,  and  in 
language  well  adapted  to  grade,  we  heartily  commend  and  indorse  it 
for  Grammar  Grade  pupils  or  schools. 

MARY  H.  HUNT, 

National  and  International  Sitpt.  Dept.  of  Scientific  Temperance 
Instruction  of  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union. 

ALBERT  H.  PLUMB,  D.D.,      ^ 

...  ._  Advisory  Board 

DANIEL  DORCHESTER,  D.D.,   !  y 

Hon.  WILLIAM  E.  SHELDON,  f  TT 

_        T  _,  United  States  of  America. 

Rev.  JOSEPH  COOK.  ) 

Eh rE 


Copyright,  1892,  1896, 
BY  SILVER,  BCRDETT  AND  COMPANY. 


SKntbersttg 
JOHN  WILSON  AND  SON,  CAMBRIDGE. 


PREFACE. 


THIS  book  has  been  prepared  for  pupils  who  have 
studied  the  preceding  number  of  this  series,  A  HEALTHY 
BODY,  or  a  work  of  like  grade.  It  will  meet  the  require- 
ments for  advanced  study  in  public  and  private  schools, 
in  high  schools  and  academies,  and  is  well  adapted  to 
the  needs  of  the  general  reader. 

The  illustrations  are  from  original  pen  sketches  drawn 
by  the  author.  In  nearly  every  instance  these  sketches 
were  made  from  specimens  especially  prepared  by  the 
author  for  this  series  of  books. 

The  treatment  of  the  subject  of  anatomy  is  sufficient 
to  form  the  foundation  for  physiological  study ;  physi- 
ology is  given  with  sufficient  fullness  to  elucidate  the 
principal  features  of  the  subject,  and  to  enable  the  pupil 
to  comprehend  easily  the  laws  for  the  preservation  of 
health ;  hygiene  is  dwelt  upon  with  such  completeness 
that  the  ordinary  laws  of  health  need  not  be  ignorantly 
broken ;  while  the  subjects  of  alcohol  and  tobacco  are 
discussed  with  such  care  and  in  such  detail  as  to  show 
that  the  use  of  these  narcotics  by  the  young  may  not 
only  diminish  their  powers  and  dwarf  them  physiealJy, 
t  but  may  even  altogether  arrest  the  mental,  moral,  and 

144856 


4  PREFACE. 

physical  development.  No  thoughtful  person  can  study 
the  effects  of  alcohol  and  tobacco  on  the  growing  body 
without  becoming  seriously  impressed  with  the  great 
power  for  evil  which  these  drugs  possess.  The  evi- 
dence is  already  convincing,  and  is  daily  accumulating, 
that  the  future  welfare  of  our  youth,  and,  therefore,  the 
future  welfare  of  our  country,  demands  that  both  these 
poisons  be  placed  beyond  the  reach  of  the  young. 

A  knowledge  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  an- 
atomy and  physiology,  together  with  a  knowledge  of 
those  things  which  are  desirable  and  of  those  which 
should  be  shunned,  will  do  much  toward  the  develop- 
ment of  a  noble  manhood  and  womanhood. 

CHARLES  H.  STOWELL. 

WASHINGTON,  D.  C., 
July,  1892. 


THE  present  edition  has  been  carefully  and  thoroughly 
revised,  and  valuable  new  matter  inserted.  The  chap- 
ter on  Emergencies  has  been  rewritten  and  made  more 
complete.  An  entirely  new  chapter  on  The  Kestriction 
and  Prevention  of  Communicable  Diseases  has  been 
added. 

C.  H.  S. 

WASHINGTON,  D.  Cn 
June,  1896. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  CELLS 11 

II.  FOODS 17 

III.  THE  NITROGENOUS  FOODS 23 

IV.  THE  NON-NITROGENOUS  FOODS.  —  COOKING    ...  31. 
V.  ALCOHOL 40 

Vl.  ADDITIONAL  FACTS  ABOUT  ALCOHOL  ......  50 

VII.  DIGESTION 57 

VIII.  DIGESTION  IN  THE  STOMACH  AND  INTESTINE  ...  70 

IX.  ABSORPTION 84 

X.  THE  BLOOD .  93 

XI.  THE  CIRCULATION 103 

XII.  RESPIRATION 124 

XIII.  VENTILATION 140 

XIV.  THE  KIDNEYS 151 

XV.  THE  BONES 156 

XVI.  THE  SKELETON 164 

XVII.  THE  MUSCLES 180 

XVIII.  EXERCISE 191 

XIX.  THE  SKIN ' 202 

XX.  BATHING. — CLOTHING 215 

XXL  ANIMAL  HEAT 224 

XXII.  THE  EJECTS  or  TOBACCO 233 

XXIII.  WHAT   TOBACCO   COSTS:    IN   BODY;    IN  MIND;    IN 

MORALS;  AND  IN  MONEY               .  240 


6  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  PAOB 

•    XXIV.     OPIUM.  —  CHLORAL 250 

XXV.     THE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM       .     .     .  253 

XXVI.     THE  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM  .     .     .  267 

XXVII.     THE  HYGIENE  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM  ....  277 

XXVIII.     ALCOHOL  AND  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM 283 

XXIX.    THE  SENSE  OF  SIGHT 296 

XXX.     THE  SENSES  OF  TASTE  AND  SMELL 306 

XXXI.     THE  SENSE  OF  HEARING 316 

XXXII.    THE  SENSES  OF  TOUCH;   TEMPERATURE;   WEIGHT: 

PRESSURE;  COMMON  SENSATION;  AND  PAIN    .     .  323 

XXXIII.  ADDITIONAL  TESTIMONY  AGAINST  ALCOHOL  AND  TO- 

BACCO     320 

XXXIV.  EMERGENCIES 343 

XXXV.    RESTRICTION  AND  PREVENTION  OF  COMMUNICABLE 

DISEASES  .     .                   ...  361 


INDEX '.....,.    371 


INTRODUCTION. 


THE  anatomist  teaches  that  the  body  is  composed  of 
tissues  and  fluids.  A  number  of  tissues  are  often  so 
united  that  the  part  can  best  perform  some  special  work 
or  function.  Such  a  part  is  called  an  organ  ;  as,  the  eye 
is  the  organ  of  sight,  and  the  ear,  the  organ  of  hearing. 
Tissues  which  have  a  similar  structure  are  grouped  to- 
gether into  systems.  Thus  we  have  the  muscular  sys- 
tem, and  the  nervous  system.  Tissues  are  also  grouped 
according  to  their  functions,  each  group  receiving  the 
name  of  an  apparatus.  To  illustrate,  we  have  the  di- 
gestive apparatus,  and  the  respiratory  apparatus. 

The  histologist  teaches  that  each  tissue  is  composed 
of  most  minute  parts.  These  are  in  the  form  of  fibrils 
and  cells.  To  study  these  anatomical  elements  requires 
the  aid  of  the  highest  powers  of  the  microscope.  Yet  a 
study  of  the  life  history  of  a  single  cell  often  reveals 
many  of  the  wonderful  phenomena  of  the  whole  body. 
The  microscope  brings  man  in  closest  relations  with 
nature,  and  renders  clear  many  of  her  mysterious 
processes. 

The  chemist  teaches  that  the  body  is  composed  of  a 
number  of  chemical  elements.  ''These  include  such  well- 


8  INTRODUCTION. 

known  elements  as  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitn> 
gen,  together  with  a  number  of  others.  These  elements 
form  certain  combinations  and  give  rise  to  certain 
chemical  processes.  The  chemist  also  informs  us  that 
the  arrangement  of  these  elements  can  be  disturbed  by 
certain  forces  and  a  new  arrangement  formed,  by  which 
entirely  new  substances  appear.  Thus  we  find  that  the 
growing  plant  can  take  carbonic  acid  gas  (which  is  com- 
posed of  carbon  and  oxygen)  and  water  (which  is 
composed  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen),  break  up  the  ar- 
rangement of  their  elements,  and  rearrange  them  so 
that  starch  (which  is  composed  of  carbon,  oxygen,  and 
hydrogen)  is  deposited  in  the  leaves.  Starch  is  ap- 
parently unlike  the  two  elements  from  which  it  is 
formed;  yet  it  is  composed  of  the  same  chemical  ele- 
ments, only  these  are  differently  arranged  and  in  dif- 
ferent proportions.  The  proportions  are  different 
because  when  the  growing  plant  breaks  up  the  car- 
bonic acid  gas  it  sets  the  oxygen  free,  and  unites  the 
carbon  with  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  of  the  water. 
By  adding  more  hydrogen  and  oxygen  to  the  starch,  the 
living  plant  can  change  the  starch  to  sugar. 

The  physiologist  teaches  of  the  active  phenomena  pre- 
sented by  living  beings.  The  peculiar  action  of  a  par- 
ticular organ  is  called  its  function.  It  is  evident  that 
physiology  is  best  studied  by  carefully  observing  living 
creatures,  —  by  the  direct  observation  of  nature.  From 
the  study  of  a  dead  tissue  we  are  unable  to  infer,  by  any 
process  of  reasoning,  what  its  living  actions  were.  For 
instance,  there  is  nothing  about  the  structure  of  a  nerve 


INTRODUCTION.  9 

from  which  we  can  reason  that  it  conveys  a  sensation  of 
pain,  or  a  stimulus  for  the  contraction  of  a  muscle. 
Neither  is  there  anything  in  the  structure  of  the  gastric 
glands  from  which  we  might  reason  that  they  secrete 
a  digestive  fluid.  Physiological  properties  are  not  as- 
certained by  anatomical  examination. 

The  hygienist  teaches  a  system  of  principles  and 
rules,  based  upon  a  knowledge  of  anatomy,  physiology, 
and  chemistry.  These  rules  have  for  their  main  object 
the  preservation  of  the  health  ;  it  may  be  the  health  of  the 
individual,  or  that  of  an  entire  community.  Hygiene  is 
the  practical  result  obtained  from  a  study  of  the  science 
of  medicine.  By  a  proper  observance  of  its  laws,  the 
individual  is  enabled  to  accomplish  his  best  work ;  while 
lie  is  also  able  to  prevent  much  sickness  and  to  reduce 
its  severity  when  present. 

The  laws  of  health  should  inform  us  not  only  con- 
cerning those  things  which  tend  directly  to  the  promo- 
tion of  health,  but  also  concerning  those  which  must  be 
avoided  if  health  is  to  be  maintained.  As  the  evidence 
is  overwhelming  that  alcohol  and  tobacco  exert  a  most 
pernicious  influence  on  the  growing  body,  the  effects 
of  these  drugs  should  be  carefully  and  fully  set  forth, 
that  the  individual  may  be  informed  of  the  danger  which 
attends  their  use.  These  drugs  are  specifically  named 
because  it  is  believed  that  the  very  wide  use  they  have 
gained  is  largely  due  to  ignorance  of  their  nature. 
What  is  said  of  alcohol  and  tobacco  may  with  propriety 
be  said  of  several  other  narcotics,  as  opium,  the  use  of 
which  is  not  so  prevalent  in  this  country.  All  these 


10  INTRODUCTION. 

stimulants   and  narcotics  tend  to  sap  the  vital   forces, 
weaken  the  will,  and  undermine  the  moral  character. 

The  great  value  of  sound  health,  of  the  individual  and 
of  the  community,  has  given  rise  to  organized  effort  in 
the  form  of  Boards  of  Health  in  all  our  large  cities,  and 
in  most  if  not  all  of  the  States  of  the  Union.  These 
Boards  and  Sanitary  Commissions  have  done  much,  not 
only  to  arrest  the  spread  of  disease  but  to  prevent  its 
appearance.  The  subject  is  one  of  such  vital  importance 
that  it  appeals  to  intelligence  everywhere.  It  has  en- 
listed the  best  thought  of  the  wisest  men  and  women 
for  many  years.  Manifestly,  therefore,  it  is  unnecessary 
to  offer  any  apology  for  the  prominence  given  to  the 
essentials  of  health  in  the  pages  of  this  volume. 


THE 

ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH, 


CHAPTER  I. 

CELLS. 

General  Description.  The  whole  body  is  composed 
largely  of  cells  ;  while  each  individual  part  consists 
of  cells  quite  characteristic  in  shape  and  size.  By 
studying  these  cells  we  learn  much  of  the  anatomy 
and  physiology  of  the  whole  system. 

Some  cells  are  so  minute  that  very  high  powers  of  the 
microscope  are  required  to  see  them,  while  others  are 
nearly  large  enough  to  be  seen  with  the  unaided  eye. 
In  shape,  there  is  the  greatest  variation.  There  are 
spherical,  oval,  and  spindle-shaped  cells ;  cells  with 
branches  extending  in  various  directions  ;  and  still 
other  cells  with  six  equal  sides.  In  color,  there  are 
the  extremes  from  the  black  to  the  colorless  ;  and  from 
the  brown  to  the  yellowish  green.  There  exists,  there- 
fore, a  great  variety  in  the  shape,  size,  and  color  of 
cells. 

Their  Structure.  Living  cells  consist  of  a  transparent, 
jelly-like  material,  called  protoplasm.  The  microscope 
shows  that  there  are  two  parts  to  a  cell :  the  body,  or  the 


12  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

greater  part  of  the  cell ;  and  the  nucleus,  or  the  smaller 
part  in  the  centre.  The  nucleus  is  usually  spherical 
or  oval,  and,  with  few  exceptions,  is  found  in  all  cells. 
In  rapidly  growing  cells  two  or  more  nuclei  are  often 
found.  The  nucleus  of  a  cell  can  be  shown  very  clearly 
by  adding  a  carefully  prepared  solution  of  carmine,  and 
then  examining  with  the  microscope.  The  carmine 
stains  each  nucleus  bright  red,  but  does  not  affect  the 
body  of  the  cell. 

The  accompanying  colored  plate  illustrates  the  results 
of  carmine-staining  on  a  variety  of  cells  :  (1)  mucous 
cells,  found  wherever  mucus  is  secreted ;  (2)  columnar 
cells,  surrounding  the  villi  of  the  small  intestine ; 
(3)  cells  from  connective  tissue ;  (4)  ciliated  cells  from 
the  trachea ;  (5)  flattened  epithelium  from  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  mouth ;  (6)  liver  cells ;  (7)  cells 
from  the  surface  of  the  body ;  theSe  cells  have  no 
nuclei ;  (8)  cells  from  the  salivary  glands  ;  (9)  cells 
lining  the  cavities  of  the  heart ;  (10)  pigment  cells  from 
the  eye. 

The  Life  of  a  Cell,  It  is  probable  that  the  great  ma- 
jority of  cells  are,  comparatively  speaking,  short-lived. 
We  must  remember  that  the  body  is  constantly  and 
rapidly  changing.  Each  movement  of  the  body,  each 
activity  of  a  part,  must  cause  a  wear  and  waste  of 
tissue  ;  and  this  loss  must  be  replaced  by  new  mate- 
rial within  a  short  time. 

There  are  many  ways  of  showing  that  the  body  is  ever 
wasting  away.  If  a  drop  of  saliva  be  placed  under  the 
microscope,  a  vast  number  of  thin  cells  can  be  seen. 
These  cells  come  from  the  mucous  membrane  lining  the 
mouth.  The  motion  of  the  tongue,  lips,  and  cheeks,  as 


PLATE 


CELLS.  13 

in  speaking,  eating,  and  drinking,  removes  vast  numbers 
of  these  bodies.  Then  again,  the  surface  of  the  whole 
body  is  covered  with  cells,  many  layers  deep.  The 
outer  cells  are  easily  removed,  by  the,  friction  of  the 
clothing,  and  by  the  use  of  the  sponge  and  towel  at 
the  daily  bath.  In  this  way  immense  numbers  of  cells 
are  being  constantly  destroyed,  while  new  ones  are  as 
rapidly  being  formed  beneath  the  surface  to  take  their 
places. 

A  more  familiar  example  will  illustrate  this  point. 
The  finger  nails  are  composed  of  cells  so  minute  that 
a  high  power  of  the  microscope  is  required  to  see  them. 
Each  paring  of  the  nail,  therefore,  must  remove  vast 
numbers  of  these  cells  ;  and  yet,  how  rapidly  even  this 
hard  structure  grows.  Thus  we  learn  that  the  body  is 
ever  changing ;  the  old,  worn-out,  and  useless  material 
being  constantly  cast  off,  and  the  new  as  regularly  tak- 
ing its  place. 

Some  cells  are  much  longer-lived  than  others.  It  is 
probable  that  the  cells  found  in  such  hard  tissues  as 
bone  and  cartilage  undergo  comparatively  slow  changes, 
while  the  cells  in  some  of  the  glands  change  with  great 
rapidity.  In  fact,  the  whole  life  history  of  a  cell  in 
some  of  the  most  active  glands  may  be  covered  by 
a  few  hours. 

Growth  and  Development.  Cells  increase  both  in  size 
and  number.  After  reaching  certain  dimensions,  how- 
ever, they  cease  to  grow.  They  may  then  either  maintain 
that  size  for  the  remainder  of  their  life,  or  they  may, 
by  a  peculiar  process  of  division,  become  temporarily 
smaller.  This  process  is  called  cell  division.  When  a 
cell  is  about  to  divide,  its  nucleus  becomes  constricted  in 


14  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

the  center,  assuming  a  dumb-bell  shape.  This  con- 
striction increases  until  the  nucleus  becomes  divided 
into  two  nuclei.  Then  the  body  of  the  cell  under- 
goes the  same ,  change  in  form  until  it  has  divided 


FIG.  1.     Diagram  illustrating  the  division  of  cells  :  (1,  2,  3,  4,  5,)  by 
cell  division  ;  (6,  7,  8, )  by  budding. 

into  two  cells,  with  one  nucleus  for  each  cell.  Another 
method  of  division  is  that  where  a  process,  or  bud. 
protrudes  from  the  body  of  the  cell.  Soon  this  sepa- 
rates from  the  original  cell,  and  a  nucleus  is  developed 
within  it. 

Some  Cells  have  Motion.  The  great  majority  of  the 
cells  in  the  body  are  fixed  and  cannot  alter  their  shape 
or  position.  There  are  some,  however,  that  not  only 
have  the  power  to  change  their  shape,  but  also  to  move 
from  place  to  place.  These  movements  are  known  as 
the  "  amoeboid  movements,"  so  named  from  an  animal 
called  the  amoeba. 

The  amceba  is  the  lowest  form  of  animal  life.  It 
is  of  jelly-like  consistence,  and  averages  from  the  -^J-g 
to  the  2rVo  °^  an  mc^  ^n  diameter.  It  is  found  in 
stagnant  water,  and  in  water  in  which  there  is  decay- 
ing animal  matter.  The  amoeba  is  an  object  of  intense 
interest  to  all  physiologists,  because  it  represents  both 
a  single  cell  and  a  whole  individual.  It  is  remark- 
able for  its  constant  and  rapid  changes  of  form, 


CELLS. 


15 


causing  it  to  move  about  in  any  direction.     The  aniceba 
is  an  animal,  the  lowest  in  the  scale ;   yet  it  moves ; 


FIG.  2.  Various  forms  assumed  by  an  amoeba.  These  sketches  were 
made  from  the  same  amoeba,  at  intervals  of  a  few  seconds. 

it  takes  nourishment ;  it  reproduces  its  own  kind  ; 
and  it  dies. 

The  Function  of  Cells.  Certain  cells  are  set  apart 
to  perform  certain  work,  and  they  can  do  no  other. 
These  groupings  are  called  glands,  tissues,  and  organs. 
The  cells  of  the  salivary  glands  can  take  digested  food 
from  the  blood,  and  change  it  into  the  tissue  of  the  sal- 
ivary glands.  The  cells  of  muscle  can  take  something 
from  the  blood  and  build  from  it  true  muscular  tissue. 
The  cells  of  the  skin  take  the  same  nourishment  from 
the  blood,  and  make  from  it  the  soft  covering  for  the 
body.  Thus,  while  a  person  may  eat  only  one  kind  of 
food,  it  is  possible  for  this  food  to  be  changed  into  all 
the  various  structures  of  the  body. 

This  is  not  the  work  of  any  one  organ ;  it  is  the 
combined  work  of  the  cells  of  all  the  organs  and  tis- 
sues of  the  body.  Each  cell,  therefore,  can  take  ma- 
terial from  the  blood,  and  change  it  into  its  own 
structure.  But  the  cell  can  do  even  more  than  this; 
it  can  take  material  from  the  blood  and  change  it  into 
a  substance  unlike  its  own.  For  instance,  a  cell  in 
one  of  the  salivary  glands  can  take  some  material 


16  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 

brought  to  it  by  the  blood,  and  completely  change  it 
iiito  saliva ;  or  a  cell  in  one  of  the  glands  of  the  stom- 
ach can  take  material  from  the  blood  and  change  it 
into  gastric  juice.  We  learn  that  each  cell  in  the 
body  has  its  own  work  to  do,  and  that  this  work  is 
constant  and  rapid. 


ALCOHOL  AND   TOBACCO. 

It  must  be  evident  that  deficiency  of  food,  or  any  in- 
jurious substance  brought  into  contact  with  the  cells, 
must  seriously  interfere  with  the  health  of  the  body. 
Any  substance  which  will  contribute  to  the  normal 
growth  and  activity  of  the  cells  is  greatly  to  be  desired, 
while  anything  which  would  impair  these  should  be 
avoided.  We  should  remember,  also,  that  all  young 
and  rapidly  growing  cells  are  much  more  sensitive  to 
foreign  substances  than  are  those  which  are  fully  devel- 
oped. ^Alcohol  and  nicotine,  being  foreign  substances 
and  poisons,  retard  the  healthy  action  and  growth  of 
the  cells. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  said  about  the  size,  shape,  and  color  of  cells? 

2.  Give  the  structure  of  cells. 

3.  Give  illustrations  proving  that  the  body  is  ever  wasting  away. 

4.  How  do  cells  increase  in  number  ? 

5.  Give  a  description  of  the  amoeba. 

6.  What  is  the  work  of  the  cells  ? 

7.  What  can  each  individual  cell  do  ? 

8.  How  do  alcohol  and  tobacco  affect  the  growth  of  the  cells  ? 


FOODS.  17 


CHAPTER  II. 
FOODS. 

Waste  and  Repair.  We  must  keep  in  mind  that  each 
activity  of  the  body  is  followed  by  a  waste  of  material, 
and  that  this  change  is  constant  throughout  life.  As 
the  body  is  always  wasting  away,  so  should  it  always  be 
undergoing  repair.  The  processes  of  waste  and  repair 
do  not  always  bear  the  same  relation  to  each  other. 

Early  in  life  the  building  up  greatly  exceeds  the  break- 
ing down  ;  more  material  is  supplied  than  is  worn  out 
and  removed ;  the  processes  of  repair  exceed  those  of 
waste,  and  the  body  grows  and  develops.  Later  in  life 
the  repair  and  waste  are  nearly  balanced,  and  for  a 
number  of  years  the  form  and  weight  remain  about  the 
same.  As  old  age  comes  on,  the  weight  diminishes  and 
all  the  forces  of  man  become  less  active.  The  waste 
now  exceeds  the  repair. 

From  the  food  we  eat,  the  body  must  obtain  the  mate- 
rials for  building  its  structure  and  for  keeping  it  in  re- 
pair. It  is  clear,  viewed  in  this  light,  that  the  subject 
of  foods  is  of  the  utmost  importance. 

Uses  of  Foods.  The  first  use  of  foods,  therefore,  is  to 
supply  material  from  which  the  body  may  be  built  up 
and  kept  in  repair.  Other  uses  are,  to  supply  heat  for 

2 


18  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

the  body ;  to  give  strength ;  and  to  dissolve  substances 
and  aid  in  their  distribution.  If  it  is  the  nature  of  a 
substance  to  injure  a  healthy  organ,  or  in  any  way 
interfere  with  its  action,  it  cannot  be  called  a  food. 

Classification  of  Foods.  All  three  of  Nature's  kingdoms 
are  called  upon  to  furnish  articles  of  food.  The  princi- 
pal articles  obtained  from  the  mineral  kingdom  are  water 
and  salt ;  from  the  vegetable  kingdom,  such  cereals  as 
wheat,  corn,  and  oats,  and  a  large  number  of  vegeta- 
bles, such  as  potatoes  and  fruits  ;  from  the  animal  king 
dom,  the  various  meats,  milk,  and  eggs. 

For  purposes  of  study,  foods  are  divided  into  the 
organic  and  inorganic.  The  organic  foods  are  obtained 
from  living  substances,  or  from  things  which  once  had 
life.  The  inorganic  foods  are  derived  from  such  inor- 
ganic substances  as  the  air,  the  earth,  and  the  water. 


THE    INORGANIC    FOODS. 

The  two  principal  inorganic  foods  are  water  and  salt. 
These  are  used  by  themselves,  or  are  added  to  the  food 
in  cooking. 

Salt.  Salt  is  found  in  all  the  tissues  and  organs  of 
the  body,  except  the  enamel  of  the  teeth.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  there  is  nearly  one  quarter  of  a  pound  of 
salt  in  the  entire  body.  In  a  small  amount,  salt  is  pres- 
ent in  nearly  all  the  organic  foods  in  use,  but  not  in 
sufficient  quantity  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  system. 
That  salt  is  a  necessary  food  is  indicated  by  the  natural 
craving  for  it,  not  only  in  man,  but  in  the  lower  animals 
as  well.  Animals  on  the  prairies,  like  the  buffalo  for 


FOODS.  19 

instance,  will  travel  many  miles  in  search  of  salt ;  while 
the  sheep  come  quickly  to  the  farmer's  call,  expecting 
some  of  this  necessary  food.  These  animals,  together 
with  others  living  upon  the  grasses,  do  not  obtain  a  suf- 
ficient supply  of  salt  with  their  food ;  while  those  ani- 
mals living  principally  upon  meats  receive  a  proper 
amount,  as  it  is  already  in  the  meat  itself.  Such  animals 
may  even  have  a  repugnance  for  salted  meats. 

Salt  gives  a  flavor  to  the  food.  Food  may  be  very 
nutritious,  yet  if  it  be  tasteless  it  is  not  eaten  readily, 
and  is  digested  with  difficulty.  Salt  stimulates  the  ap- 
petite, excites  a  flow  of  the  saliva  and  gastric  juice,  and 
thus  aids  in  the  whole  process  of  digestion. 

Water.  Water  constitutes  nearly  three  fourths  of  the 
weight  of  the  entire  body.  It  is  universally  present 
in  all  the  tissues  and  fluids  of  the  body.  There  are 
many  reasons  why  water  is  so  important.  All  the  food 
must  be  dissolved  before  the  processes  of  digestion  and 
absorption  can  be  completed.  The  water  in  the  tissues 
holds  in  solution  numerous  substances,  which  represent 
some  of  the  waste  materials  of  the  body. 

Water  gives  elasticity  to  the  bones,  the  muscles,  the 
tendons,  and  the  other  tissues.  Through  the  blood  and 
tissues  it  becomes  a  circulating  medium  for  conveying 
the  foods,  which  are  held  in  solution,  to  all  parts  of  the 
body,  and  for  taking  away  from  the  tissues  the  worn- 
out  and  useless  ingredients.  It  is  due  to  the  presence 
of  water  that  each  tissue  has  its  special  consistency. 
Water  is  the  most  important  substance  used  as  food,  as 
it  is  the  one  universal  solvent.  It  thus  becomes  the 
medium  for  carrying  dissolved  materials  from  place  to 
place,  leaving  and  taking,  as  nature  directs.  The  crav- 


20  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

ing  for  water  is  greater  than  for  any  other  food,  and 
a  person  will  die  sooner,  if  deprived  of  it,  than  if  de- 
prived of  solid  food. 

A  large  quantity  of  water  is  taken  into  the  system 
during  each  day.  Some  of  this  is  taken  purposely,  as 
a  drink,  while  a  large  amount  is  taken  with  the  food. 
To  prove  the  truth  of  this  latter  statement,  we  have 
only  to  recall  the  fact  that  one  half  the  weight  of  beef, 
three  fourths  the  weight  of  potatoes,  and  nine  tenths 
the  weight  of  milk,  consist  of  water.  A  healthy  man 
takes,  on  an  average,  about  two  quarts  of  water  each  day. 

Sources  of  Water.  Rain  water  most  closely  resembles 
distilled,  or  chemically  pure  water ;  it  usually  contains 
a  small  amount  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  Spring  water 
contains  a  considerable  amount  of  mineral  substances 
and  carbonic  acid  gas,  the  latter  giving  to  spring  water 
its  fresh  taste.  The  carbonic  acid  aids  in  dissolving  the 
mineral  substances  as  the  water  permeates  the  soil. 
Spring  water  contains  but  little  oxygen ;  therefore  vege- 
table organisms  usually  flourish  in  it,  while  animal  life, 
which  requires  much  oxygen,  is  poorly  represented. 
Spring  water  may  bubble  to  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
or  some  mechanical  device,  as  a  pump,  may  be  neces- 
sary to  bring  it  within  reach. 

The  running  water  of  rivers  does  not  contain  so  much 
mineral  matter  as  does  spring  water.  When  brought 
to  the  surface,  spring  water  rapidly  gives  off  its  carbonic 
acid,  causing  a  deposit  of  some  of  the  mineral  sub- 
stances. Running  water  absorbs  oxygen  readily  from 
the  air,  and  being  deficient  in  carbonic  acid  and  rich  in 
oxygen,  it  affords  the  necessary  conditions  for  animal 
life.  Drinking  water  is  obtained  chiefly  from  springs, 


FOODS.  21 

and  usually  some  form  of  a  pump  is  necessary  to  bring 
it  to  the  surface. 

The  Purity  of  Drinking  Water,  Drinking  water  should 
be  colorless  and  without  the  slightest  odor.  Chemically 
pure  water,  however,  is  not  pleasant  to  the  taste ;  it 
lacks  the  snap  and  tartness  of  spring  water.  Then, 
too,  the  presence  of  some  minerals  in  solution  is  useful 
to  the  system.  Lime  is  important  in  the  formation  of 
teeth  and  bone,  and  when  drinking  water  does  not 
contain  lime  in  excess,  then  it  must  be  regarded  as 
beneficial,  especially  so  in  early  life,  when  the  tissues 
are  developing. 

On  the  other  hand,  lead  is  a  very  dangerous  ingredu 
ent  of  water.  Water  that  has  stood  in  lead  pipes  should 
never  be  used  for  drinking  purposes.  If  it  is  neces- 
sary to  use  lead  pipes,  then  the  water  should  be  kept 
running,  or  a  large  quantity  drawn  off  before  any  is 
taken  for  use.  There  is  no  reason  for  supposing,  sim- 
ply because  water  has  no  odor  and  looks  clear,  that  it 
does  not  contain  in  solution  substances  of  a  most  poi- 
sonous nature. 

Organic  matter  may  be  present  in  a  state  of  de- 
composition. When  there  is  any  danger  of  this,  it  is 
much  better  to  boil  the  water  for  a  long  time,  and 
thereby  destroy  the  minute  germs.  During  an  epi- 
demic of  typhoid  fever  it  is  a  wise  precaution  to  drink 
no  water  that  has  not  been  so  treated.  When  cool, 
after  boiling,  a  little  lime  juice  may  be  added  to  the 
water  to  correct  the  insipid  taste,  as  the  boiling  drives 
off  the  carbonic  acid  gas.  Do  not  use  water  that  may 
be  near  some  source  of  filth,  and  be  sure  that  the  well  or 
spring  is  located  at  a  safe  distance  from  any  decaying 
organic  matter. 


22  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

While  the  system  daily  demands  a  large  amount  of 
water,  yet  too  much  is  injurious,  especially  if  taken 
with  the  meals.  When  the  body  is  in  a  healthy  condi- 
.tion,  the  demand  for  water  is  easily  satisfied.  Re- 
member it  is  best  to  drink  sparingly  at  mealtime,  and 
more  freely  between  meals.  It  is  very  unwise  to  use 
ice-cold  water  at  any  time,  and  it  is  especially  bad  to 
take  it  with  a  meal. 

There  are  other  inorganic  foods  besides  water  and 
salt,  —  as  the  various  chemical  salts,  such  as  the  salts 
of  soda,  potassa,  and  lime. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  relation  do  waste  and  repair  bear  to  each  other  at  dif- 
ferent periods  of  life  ? 

2.  Give  some  of  the  uses  of  foods. 

3.  Name  foods  derived  from  each  of  the  kingdoms. 

4.  How  are  foods  classified? 

5.  Where  is  salt  found  in  the  body?     In  what  foods? 

6.  Give  some  of  the  uses  of  salt. 

7.  What  proportion  of  the  body  is  composed  of  water  ?• 

8.  Why  is  water  so  important  ? 

9.  What  does  rain  water  contain  ?     Spring  water  ? 

10.  Which  form  of  life  flourishes  best  in  spring  water  ? 

11.  From  what  source  is  drinking  water  usually  obtained  ? 

12.  Is  a  small  amount  of  lime  in  drinking  water  beneficial  ?   Why  ? 

13.  How  can  the  germs  in  water  be  destroyed  ? 


THE  NITROGENOUS  FOODS.  23 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE    NITBOG-ENOUS    FOODS. 

THE  organic  foods,  derived  from  the  animal  and 
vegetable  kingdoms,  are  divided  into  two  classes,  de- 
pending upon  the  presence  or  absence  of  nitrogen. 
They  are  called,  therefore,  the  nitrogenous  and  the 
non-nitrogenous  foods. 

The  Nitrogenous  Foods.  The  nitrogenous  foods  are 
also  called  the  albuminoids,  from  their  resemblance  to 
albumen.  They  include  such  foods  as  the  meats,  eggs, 
and  milk.  Albumen,  as  found  in  the  white  of  eggs,  is 
in  nearly  a  pure  state.  It  forms  the  chief  part  of  mus- 
cle, and  is  found  in  nearly  all  the  fluids  of  the  body, 
including  the  blood  and  lymph.  As  the  albuminoid 
substances  are  so  abundant,  entering  largely  into  the 
formation  of  the  animal  tissues  and  fluids,  so  their 
absence  from  food  is  soon  felt. 

No  diet  can  be  nutritious,  when  long  continued,  un- 
less it  contains  some  of  these  foods.  The  nitrogenous 
foods  need  not  necessarily  be  from  the  animal  king- 
dom, as  the  cereal  grains  contain  nitrogen,  but  in  these 
the  relative  quantity  is  much  smaller.  The  nitrogenous 
foods  are  capable  of  sustaining  life  much  longer  than 


24  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF  HEALTH. 

the  foods  consisting  of  starch,  fat,  or  sugar.  Yet  even 
these  foods,  when  taken  alone,  are  not  capable  of  sup- 
porting life.  Animals  that  have  been  fed  on  such  ex- 
clusive diet  become  enfeebled,  refuse  food,  and  finally 
die.  Their  continued  use,  by  man,  results  in  a  great 
dislike  for  them,  showing  that  other  materials  are  neces- 
sary to  supply  all  the  demands  of  the  system. 

It  follows,  therefore,  that  while  the  albuminous  foods 
are  the  first  in  importance,  yet  we  must  not  depend 
upon  one  kind  of  food  to  sustain  life.  Foods  contain- 
ing starch  and  oil  are  as  necessary  as  are  the  inorganic 
substances.  The  body  must  be  supplied  with  the  same 
variety  of  ingredients  as  that  found  in  its  tissues.  To 
deprive  it  of  any  one  of  these  will  slowly  but  surely 
bring  on  disease  and  death. 

Milk.  The  "  model  food  "  is  the  name  often  given  to 
milk ;  no  ideal  food  can  surpass  it.  As  it  contains  all 
the  food  elements  necessary  for  the  support  of  the  body, 
it  will,  therefore,  support  life  longer  than  any  other 
single  article  of  diet.  It  contains  a  large  amount  of 
water,  nearly  nine  parts  in  ten  ;  a  considerable  amount 
of  fat,  as  butter  ;  a  sugar,  known  as  milk  sugar  ;  miner- 
als ;  and  albumen.  The  mineral  matter  consists  largely 
of  lime,  so  essential  to  the  formation  of  the  bones  when 
they  are  growing  rapidly. 

The  nitrogenous  matter  consists  almost  entirely  of 
albumen  and  caseine.  If  any  acid  be  added  to  milk 
the  caseine  is  thrown  down  in  a  coagulated  form,  and 
the  milk  is  said  to  be  curdled.  The  milk  curdles  spon- 
taneously if  exposed  to  the  air  for  a  few  hours  and  in 
a  warm  room.  This  is  because  of  the  development  of 
lactic  acid  in  the  milk.  The  action  is  the  same  as  if 


THE  NITROGENOUS  FOODS. 


25 


the  acid  were  added  intentionally,  and  the  caseine  thus 
coagulated.  From  this  coagulated  mass,  or  curd,  cheese 
is  made.  The  fat  of  milk  consists  of  vast  numbers  of 
minute  oil  drops.  These  appear,  under  the  microscope, 
as  small  round  globules  floating  in  water. 


OOo 


0° 


w$^ffi£$&& 


v^^OO          . 


FIG.  3.     Milk,  highly  magnified. 

Milk  readily  absorbs  gases  ;  therefore  special  care  is 
required  to  keep  it  sweet  and  pure.  It  must  be  kept 
in  a  room  that  is  very  clean  and  free  from  all  odors. 
Milk  may  be  the  means  of  communicating  disease,  either 
by  the  use  of  impure  water  with  which  the  milk  was 
adulterated,  or  by  the  milk  having  absorbed  injurious 
gases. 

Milk  should  be  the  principal  diet  for  children,  while 


26  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

for  adults  it  may  be  used  as  a  drink  with  the  ordinary 
meals.  Warm  milk  can  take  the  place  of  the  cup  of 
coffee,  while  cool  milk  is  a  good  substitute  for  ice  water. 
Some  people  claim  they  cannot  use  milk,  as  it  disagrees 
with  the  stomach  and  interferes  with  the  action  of  the 
liver.  These  troubles  are  easily  prevented  by  using  only 
a  moderate  amount,  and  by  adding  to  it  a  small  quantity 
of  lime  water. 

Eggs.  Eggs  are  easily  digested  and  very  nutritious. 
They  are  the  most  digestible  when  soft-boiled  in  the 
shell,  or  when  broken  into  boiling  water.  The  principal 
differences  between  the  white  and  the  yolk  of  the  egg 
are  these :  the  white  contains  no  fat,  but  a  considerable 
quantity  of  water ;  while  the  yolk  contains  a  consider- 
able amount  of  fat,  and  but  little  water.  Nearly  thirty 
per  cent  of  the  yolk  consists  of  this  fat,  or  yellow  oil. 

Meats.  The  meats  used  for  food  are  rich  in  nitroge- 
nous ingredients,  together  with  fat  and  mineral  matter. 
Their  nutritious  properties  and  pleasant  taste  make 
them  very  desirable  as  articles  of  diet.  The  meats  dif- 
fer in  their  digestibility,  and  in  their  nutritive  value. 
Beef  is  regarded  as  the  best  meat  for  general  use. 
When  tender  beef  is  properly  cooked,  it  is  easily  digested 
and  very  nutritious.  Mutton  ranks  next  to  beef,  although 
its  flavor  is  not  agreeable  to  all. 

Yeal  is  not  easily  digested,  neither  is  it  so  nourish- 
ing as  either  beef  or  mutton.  Pork  is  not  readily  di- 
gested ;  the  fibers  of  the  lean  meat  are  too  compact,  and 
the  fat  is  likely  to  be  in  excess.  A  large  class  of  peo- 
ple, however,  eat  it  freely.  To  those  who  exercise 
much,  and  who  have  strong  digestive  powers,  pork  ap- 
pears to  do  no  harm.  Oysters  are  very  nourishing,  are 


THE  NITROGENOUS  FOODS.  27 

easily  digested,  arid  are  very  pleasant  to  those  who  have 
acquired  a  taste  for  them.  Oysters  are  most  easily 
digested  when  eaten  raw,  furnishing  in  this  particular 
a  striking  exception  to  the  general  rule  xfor  all  animal 
substances. 

The  Cereal  Grains.  The  cereal  grains,  as  wheat,  oats, 
corn,  and  rice,  are  most  important  foods.  They  consist 
of  nitrogenous  material,  starch,  sugar,  salts,  and  fat. 
The  starch  is  seen  as  the  white  center  of  the  grain, 
surrounded  by  a  husk.  The  husk  consists  of  a  woody 
material  and  is  quite  indigestible.  The  nitrogenous  por- 
tion of  the  grain  is  situated  between  the  husk  and  the 
starchy  center.  Wheat  flour  would  be  much  more  nu- 
tritious if  only  the  husk,  or  bran,  were  removed,  and  the 
layer  containing  the  nitrogenous  matter  and  the  gluten, 
oil,  and  salts  retained  with  the  starch.  The  flour  would 
not  be  so  white,  neither  would  the  bread,  but  it  would  be 
more  wholesome.  The  gluten,  or  the  adhesive,  jelly-like 
quality  of  the  cereals,  is  very  abundant  in  wheat,  forming 
about  twenty  per  cent  of  the  whole  grain. 

The  grains  vary  in  their  proportions  of  nitrogen  and 
starch ;  but  their  value  as  a  food  does  not  depend  alone 
upon  the  amount  they  contain  of  any  single  nutritive 
ingredient.  There  should  be  such  a  variety  of  substances 
as  will  form  the  best  combination  for  the  nourishment 
of  the  body. 

Wheat  leads  all  the  cereals  in  nutritive  value.  It  is 
easily  digested  and,  with  the  exception  of  milk,  it  comes 
nearest  to  the  standard  of  a  perfect  food.  It  contains 
but  a  small  proportion  of  water ;  has  a  large  amount  of 
starch;  is  well  supplied  with  nitrogenous  material;  con- 
tains fat;  and  considerable  mineral  matter.  There  is. 


28  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

however,  a  deficiency  in  the  amount  of  fat  it  contains ; 
therefore  this  must  be  supplied  by  putting  butter  on  the 
bread.  The  proportion  of  water  is  so  small  that  a  given 
bulk  of  wheat  is  richer  in  solids  than  any  other  food, 
Probably  the  best  test  there  is  for  a  good  wheat  is  the 
kind  of  bread  it  will  make. 

Bread.  Bread  is  often  called  the  staff  of  life,  because 
it  contains  so  many  nutritious  elements,  being  deficient 
only  in  fat.  Thus  it  follows  that  bread  and  butter 
make  a  very  complete  diet.  In  making  bread  the  flour 
is  mixed  with  water  until  a  dough  is  formed.  Then  salt 
and  yeast  are  added.  This  is  set  aside  in  a  warm  place 
until  fermentation  is  well  established.  The  nitrogenous 
ingredients  begin  to  decompose  and  act  as  a  ferment  on 
the  starch,  which  becomes,  in  part  at  least,  changed  to 
sugar.  The  sugar  is  further  decomposed  into  carbonic 
acid  and  alcohol. 

The  carbonic  acid  forms  bubbles;  these  force  their 
way  through  the  dough,  or  sponge,  making  the  bread 
rise.  The  dough  is  now  placed  in  an  oven  hot  enough 
to  stop  fermentation  at  once.  The  alcohol  is  all  driven 
off  by  the  heat,  and  much  of  the  water  also.  The  bread 
is  then  said  to  be  baked.  But  yeast  is  not  essential  to 
the  making  of  bread.  Unfermented  bread  is  made  by 
mixing  with  the  dough  a  powder  composed  of  an  acid 
and  an  alkali,  so  that  after  the  powder  is  moistened  in 
the  bread  the  acid  and  alkali  form  a  new  compound, 
and  carbonic  acid  is  set  free. 

In  aerated  bread  the  carbonic  acid  is  forced  into 
water,  and  the  flour  mixed  with  ^this  water  under  pres- 
sure. When  the  dough  is  heated  the  carbonic  acid  ex- 
pands and  makes  the  bread  spongy. 


THE  NITROGENOUS  FOODS.  29 

Bread  made  from  unbolted  flour  is  very  nourishing, 
but  the  presence  of  the  bran  makes  it  difficult  to  digest, 
so  that  it  should  not  be  used  by  persons  with  weak 
digestive  powers.  Hot  bread  is  likely  to  form  a  paste  in 
the  mouth,  and  thus  its  digestion  becomes  difficult. 

Oats,  Corn,  Rice,  Oatmeal  contains  a  large  amount  of 
nitrogenous  material,  ranking  in  this  regard  nearly  or 
quite  equal  with  wheat.  But  it  contains  a  considerable 
amount  of  woody  or  fibrous  material,  which  interferes 
with  the  digestion  of  it  and  lowers  its  nutritive  value. 
It  also  lacks  adhesive  qualities,  so  that  it  cannot  be 
made  into  bread.  Yet  it  is  a  wholesome  food,  and  to 
most  persons  agreeable. 

Corn  contains  less  nitrogenous  material  than  oats, 
but  it  has  more  starch.  Rice  consists  of  ninety  per 
cent  of  starch  with  scarcely  any  nitrogenous  material. 
When  taken  with  some  albuminous  food,  as  meat  of  any 
kind,  it  is  a  valuable  article  of  diet ;  it  is  easily  digested 
and  is  also  very  cheap.  Peas  and  beans  are  very  nour- 
ishing, for  they  contain  a  good  amount  of  albumen  and 
starch.  They  would  be  valuable  as  food  were  it  not  that 
they  consist  of  such  solid  matter  that  they  are  not  easily 
digested.  When  used,  .they  should  be  cooked  a  long 
time,  and  be  thoroughly  masticated. 

Potatoes  consist  of  from  seventy  to  eighty  per  cent  of 
water ;  the  remainder  being  nearly  all  starch,  together 
with  a  small  amount  of  mineral  matter,  albumen,  and 
salts.  Although  they  consist  so  largely  of  water,  yet 
they  are  the  most  generally  used  of  all  vegetables.  They 
are  used  extensively  because  they  can  be  obtained  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year,  are  very  cheap,  and  agree  witli  most 
persons.  They  should  never  form  the  exclusive  diet; 


30  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

but,  when  used  with  some  fat,  as  butter  or  meat-gravy, 
and  salt,  together  with  some  food  rich  in  nitrogenous 
matter,  they  form  a  most  valuable  adjunct  to  the  table. 

Turnips,  cabbage,  parsnips,  onions,  and  other  vegeta- 
bles, are  added  to  the  list  of  foods  in  order  to  give  suit- 
able variety.  Their  nutritive  value  is  low,  and  they  are 
not  easily  digested. 

Apples,  peaches,  pears,  and  other  fruits  are  valua- 
ble foods  in  many  ways.  They  contain  a  considerable 
amount  of  sugar  and  mineral  matter,  while  their  acids 
give  them  a  characteristic  taste.  These  acids  stimulate 
the  appetite  and  promote  the  flow  of  gastric  juice,  while 
the  great  amount  of  water  they  contain  serves  to  quench 
the  thirst.  Ripe  fruits  in  their  season  are  most  bene- 
ficial ;  while  overripe  and  unripe  fruits  are  often  the 
cause  of  serious  trouble.  Much  of  the  danger,  however, 
of  unripe  fruits  is  removed  by  cooking. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  How  are  the  foods  from  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms 
divided  ? 

2.  The  nitrogenous  foods  include  what  ? 

3.  Where  is  albumen  found  ? 

4.  What  is  said  about  supporting  life  with  one  kind  of  food  ? 

5.  Of  what  is  milk  composed? 

6.  Is  beef  nutritious  and  easily  digested?    Is  mutton?    Veal? 
Pork  ?     Are  oysters  ? 

7.  Of  what  do  the  cereal  grains  consist  ? 

8.  Which  is  the  most  nutritive  of  the  cereals? 

9.  In  what  is  it  deficient  ?     How  is  this  supplied  ? 

10.  Why  is  bread  a  valuable  food  ? 

11.  What  cereal  ranks  next  to  wheat? 

12.  What  is  said  about  potatoes  as  a  food? 


THE  NON-NITROGENOUS  FOODS.  31 


CHAPTER  IV. 
THE   NON-NITROGENOUS   FOODS. 

COOKING. 

Fats.  The  non-nitrogenous  foods  consist  of  starch, 
sugar,  and  the  fats.  There  is  a  natural  craving  in  the 
system  for  these  foods,  and  they  cannot  be  dispensed 
with  for  any  great  length  of  time  without  serious  injury 
to  the  system. 

Experiments  have  proved  that  some  fat  must  enter 
into  the  diet  if  the  bodily  health  be  maintained.  This 
seems  to  be  especially  true  when  the  body  is  growing 
rapidly.  Some  individuals  do  not  digest  the  fat  of 
meats  readily,  yet  they  can  use  butter  and  milk.  Oth- 
ers are  able  to  digest  such  fatty  foods  as  bacon  or 
the  fat  of  other  meats.  Fat  has  great  heat-producing 
power,  therefore  it  is  most  used  where  the  climate  is 
cold  and  severe. 

It  is  probable  that  some  of  the  fat  in  the  body  ia 
derived  directly  from  the  fat  of  the  food ;  that  is,  it 
becomes  absorbed  and  redeposited  in  the  tissues ;  but 
it  is  equally  true  that  fat  may  be  formed  in  the  body 
from  foods  which  are  without  fat.  This  is  proved  to 
be  a  fact,  because  the  amount  of  fat,  or  butter,  found 
in  the  milk  of  the  cow  far  exceeds  the  amount  of  fat 
taken  as  food. 


32 


THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 


Some  persons  become  very  fleshy,  while  others,  with 
the  same  diet,  remain  lean.  In  many  families  there  re 
an  inherited  tendency  to  accumulate  fat  in  the  body. 
It  is  probable  also  that,  in  some  cases  at  least,  mere 
food  is  taken  than  is  necessary  for  the  normal  uses  of 
the  body.  A  deposit  of  too  much  fat  is  attended  with 
inconvenience  and  no  little  danger. 

Starch.  Pure  starch  is  a  fine,  white  powder,  consisting 
of  minute  granules.  When  examined  under  the  micro- 
scope, the  granules  are  seen  to  vary  in  size  and  form,  ac- 


FIG.  4.     Wheat  starch,  or  wheat  flour,  highly  magnified. 

cording  to  the  kind  of  starch.  Thus  it  becomes  possible 
to  tell  from  what  vegetable  the  starch  was  obtained  by  the 
appearance  of  the  granules.  The  four  illustrations  here 
given  show  these  marked  differences.  Each  starch  is 
magnified  the  same  number  of  times,  or  about  five  hun- 
dred diameters.  The  granules  are  very  minute,  those  of 


THE  NON-NITROGENOUS  FOODS. 


33 


rice  starch  being  not  over  Q-^QQ  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
A  study  of  the  starches  is  very  fascinating  work  to 
those  who  have  a  microscope.  When  mixed  with  water 
the  granules  swell  and  form  a  paste ;  when  boiled  with 
^  large  amount  of  water  they  expand  greatly,  and  can 


FIG.  5.     Oat  starch,  highly  magnified. 

iiu  longer  be  seen.  The  destruction  of  these  granules 
is  a  great  aid  to  their  digestion.  Prolonged  cooking 
changes  the  starch  into  a  substance  called  dextrine. 
This  is  easily  changed  by  the  digestive  juices  into  glu- 
cose or  grape  sugar.  The  brown  crust  of  the  bread  is 
the  starch  of  the  flour,  changed  into  dextrine  by  the 
prolonged  exposure  to  heat.  It  is  more  easily  digested 

3 


34 


THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 


than  the  softer  parts  of  the  bread.  In  order  that  the 
starch  granules  may  be  completely  broken  up,  all  starchy 
foods  should  be  thoroughly  cooked.  A  too  exclusive 


9     0 

FIG.  6.     Corn  starch,  highly  magnified. 


FIG.  7.     Potato  starch,  highly  magnified. 

diet  of  starchy  foods  is  likely  to  impair  the  digestive 
powers ;  for  the  digestive  juices  are  unable  to  promptly 


THE  NON-NITROGENOUS   FOODS.  35 

change  large  quantities  of  starch  into  sugar,  and  the 
sugar  is  slowly  absorbed  if  present  in  too  large  quan- 
tities. This  gives  rise  to  the  formation  of  gases  and 
acids,  and  then  dyspepsia  follows. 

Sugar,  Sugar  is  closely  allied  to  starch,  both  in  its 
chemical  and  physiological  relations.  In  the  living 
plant  the  sugar  and  the  starch  represent  the  same  nu- 
tritive material,  though  under  different  conditions ;  the 
sugar  is  in  the  form  of  a  liquid,  and  the  starch  is  in  the 
form  of  a  solid. 

There  are  three  principal  varieties  of  sugar,  —  cane 
sugar,  grape  sugar,  and  milk  sugar.  Cane  sugar  is  that 
obtained  from  the  juice  of  the  sugar  cane.  It  is  the 
variety  in  ordinary  use.  It  is  also  made  from  the  juice 
of  the  maple  tree,  and  is  called  maple  sugar.  It  is  the 
most  soluble  and  the  sweetest  of  the  sugars.  Grape 
sugar  is  found  in  great  abundance  in  the  juice  of  ripe 
grapes.  It  is  generally  distributed  in  the  sweet  juices 
of  many  fruits  and  flowers.  This  is  the  reason  it  is 
found  in  honey,  although  cane  sugar  is  also  present. 
Grape  sugar,  also  called  glucose,  is  found  in  some  of  the 
animal  tissues  and  fluids,  as  in  the  liver  and  the  blood. 
This  is  the  form  of  sugar  which  is  made  in  the  body  by 
the  digestion  of  starch.  The  third  variety,  the  sugar 
of  milk,  is  found  only  in  milk.  Its  sweet  taste  is  not 
very  marked. 

While  it  is  true  that  a  considerable  quantity  of  sugar 
is  likely  to  disturb  the  stomach,  yet  it  is  equally  true 
that  a  certain  amount  is  very  desirable.  The  natural 
desire  for  sweet  things  is  so  universal  in  the  young 
that  it  can  indicate  nothing  else  than  a  demand  of  the 
system  for  this  food.  The  impure  and  highly  colored 


36  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

candies  in  the  store  do  not  represent  a  definite  amount 
of  sweet  food.  It  is  better  to  satisfy  the  craving  by 
eating  ripe  fruit.  But  if  candies  are  desired,  let  them 
be  made  at  home,  from  pure  sugar.  There  is  no  danger 
of  the  teeth  being  injured  by  the  use  of  sweet  foods, 
if.  they  be  cleansed  each  day,  as  they  should  be  under 
all  circumstances. 

The  Amount  and  Kind  of  Food.  No  rule  can  be  laid 
down  saying  positively  just  how  much  of  each  kind  of 
food  must  be  taken;  but  if  the  body  be  in  a  healthy 
condition,  an  amount  should  be  taken  sufficient  to  sat- 
isfy the  appetite.  The  appetite,  however,  is  not  always 
a  safe  guide,  because  by  irregular  habits,  by  overeating, 
and  by  eating  improper  articles  of  food,  it  becomes  vari- 
able, and  is  then  an  unreliable  test.  If  persons  would 
form  the  habit  of  eating  a  regular  diet  of  plain,  whole- 
some food,  there  would  be  far  less  of  dyspepsia  with  its 
attending  disturbances  of  the  nervous  system. 

The  quantity  of  food  must  vary  with  the  amount  and 
kind  of  exercise.  A  good  rule  is  this  :  Learn  what  are 
wholesome  foods,  how  they  should  be  cooked,  and  that 
a  mixed  diet  is  best ;  then  decide  what  and  how  much 
to  eat.  Some  persons  require  only  a  small  amount  of 
food  to  keep  them  in  good  health,  while  others  require 
much  more.  Yet  sickness  is  caused  by  overeating,  as 
well  as  by  eating  things  which  are  harmful.  Habit  and 
custom  have  a  great  deal  to  do  with  determining  the 
kind  and  amount  of  food. 

Cooking.  Cooking  is  necessary  for  some  kinds  of 
food,  in  order  that  they  may  be  properly  digested.  It 
either  softens  the  food  or  aids  in  dividing  it  into  small 
particles.  It  also  brings  out  distinct  and  agreeable  fla- 


COOKING.  37 

vors,  and  thus  pleases  the  taste.  If  the  temperature 
employed  in  the  cooking  be  too  high,  the  natural  flavors 
will  be  destroyed,  and  disagreeable  odors  will  be  pro- 
duced ;  while  if  the  temperature  be  too  low,  the  flavors 
are  not  developed. 

Cooking  coagulates  the  albumen  in  the  foods ;  it  ren- 
ders the  fatty  tissues  more  fluid  ;  it  changes  the  starchy 
foods  into  a  pulpy  mass,  and  it  breaks  up  the  harder 
tissues  of  the  vegetables.  Thus  the  foods  are  softened, 
and  are  more  easily  masticated. 

Methods  of  Cooking,  Nearly  all  the  articles  of  food 
are  cooked  before  eating,  the  principal  exceptions  being 
oysters  and  certain  ripe  fruits. 

In  broiling,  roasting,  or  boiling  meat  it  is  desirable 
to  retain  in  the  meat  as  much  of  the  nutritive  properties 
as  possible.  This  can  be  done  by  applying  great  heat 
at  first,  producing  a  rapid  coagulation  of  the  albumen 
on  the  surface.  This  forms  a  crust,  through  which  the 
nutritive  juices  of  the  meat  cannot  escape.  Afterwards 
the  cooking  should  proceed  with  a  less  degree  of  .heat, 
until  the  meat  is  cooked  to  please  the  taste. 

When  meats  are  cooked  too  thoroughly  their  natural 
juices  are  driven  off  by  the  prolonged  heat,  and  their 
albuminous  matter  is  hard  and  dry.  Such  meats  are 
masticated  with  difficulty  and  digested  slowly,  while 
much  that  is  nutritious  is  lost.  The  only  argument 
advanced  in  favor  of  sucli  thorough  cooking  of  meat 
is  that  it  destroys  all  parasites ;  but  there  is  little 
if  any  danger  of  these  in  any  of  the  meats,  if  pork  be 
discarded. 

Broiling  is  the  best  method  of  cooking  meat,  while 
roasting  is  nearly  as  good.  Vegetables  and  the  coarser 


38  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

meats  can  be  made  very  tender  by  prolonged  boiling, 
remembering  that  they  should  be  placed  at  once  into 
boiling  water,  when  after  the  first  application  of  heat 
the  temperature  should  be  considerably  lowered.  Even 
potatoes  would  be  more  nutritious  if  boiled  with  at  least 
a  portion  of  their  skins  on,  as  the  skins  would  aid  in 
retaining  some  of  the  nutritious  materials  that  would 
otherwise  be  lost. 

Frying  is  about  the  worst  of  all  the  methods  of  pre- 
paring meats  and  other  foods  for  the  table.  The  fat  in 
the  meats,  or  the  fat  in  the  frying-pan,  penetrates  the 
lean  portions  and  surrounds  each  particle  with  a  layer  of 
oil.  As  oil  is  not  digested  in  the  stomach,  it  follows 
that  the  meat  with  its  oily  covering  must  pass  out  of 
the  stomach  before  the  outer  coat  of  oil  can  be  com- 
pletely removed.  Certain  fatty  acids  are  also  developed 
during  the  frying  process  which  are  likely  to  .prove  inju- 
rious. If  food  must  be  fried,  the  fat  should  be  boiling 
hot  when  the  articles  are  put  into  it,  and  it  should  be 
kept  boiling  during  the  entire  cooking.  Thus  by  form- 
ing a  hard  outer  coat  at  once,  the  fat  is  not  so  likely  to 
penetrate  deeply. 

In  making  soups  it  is  desirable  that  all  the  juices  be 
extracted  from  the  meat,  —  a  result  just  the  opposite  of 
the  one  desired  in  broiling  or  roasting.  Therefore  the 
meat  should  be  cut  into  small  pieces  and  placed  in  cold 
water  at  first,  and  the  water  gradually  allowed  to  come 
to  a  high  temperature.  In  this  way  no  layer  of  coagu- 
lated albumen  is  formed  on  the  outside,  and  all  the 
juices  are  gradually  brought  out  by  the  water. 

Enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  healthy,  whole- 
some cooking  depends  upon  well-known  laws  of  chemis- 


COOKING.  S9 

try  and  physiology.  A  knowledge  of  these  sciences  is 
necessary  to  fully  understand  and  master  the  mysteries 
of  this  art.  But  it  is  one  of  the  happy  circumstances  of 
early  life  that  if  there  is  a  healthy  body  to  begin  with, 
it  does  not  become  necessary  to  study  the  articles  of 
food  as  they  are  placed  on  the  table.  We  eat  heartily 
of  the  good  things  provided  for  us ;  enter  into  all  the 
labors  and  pleasures  of  the  day  with  much  earnestness ; 
sleep  soundly  at  night ;  awake  in  the  morning  with 
rested  body  and  clear  brain ;  and  begin  again  a  new 
day.  Thus  should  it  be  all  through  life. 

QUESTIONS.1 

1.  What  are  the  non-nitrogenous  foods? 

2.  Are  these  foods  necessary  ? 

3.  What  especial  power  has  fat  ? 

4.  The  fat  of  the  body  is  derived  from  what? 

5.  Give  a  description  of  starch. 

6.  What  is  said  of  the  different  forms  of  starch  grains? 

7.  How  does  cooking  affect  starch  ? 

8.  What  non-nitrogenous  food  is  closely  allied  to  starch? 

9.  Name  the  varieties  of  sugar. 

10.  Where  is  cane  sugar  obtained  ? 

11.  Where  is  grape  sugar  found? 

12.  How  does  cooking  affect  the  food  ? 

13.  What  is  desirable  in  broiling  meats? 

14.  How  can  this  be  accomplished  ? 

15.  Why  is  frying  a  poor  method  of  cooking  meats? 

16.  How  can  all  the  juices  be  extracted  from  meat  ? 


40  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 


CHAPTER  V. 
ALCOHOL. 

THE  microscope  of  modern  times  reveals  to  us  many 
wonderful  things.  It  shows  the  existence  of  the  most 
minute  forms  of  living  objects  ;  so  minute  that  the  high- 
est powers  of  the  microscope  and  the  greatest  skill  of 
the  observer  are  necessary  to  see  them.  These  forms 
are  so  minute  that  they  are  often  spoken  of  as  u  micro- 
organisms." The  germs  or  spores  of  these  micro- 
organisms float  about  in  the  air  in  a  dry  stafe,  and  are 
carried  with  the  dust  and  deposited  upon  objects  every- 
where. 

Whenever  any  dead  animal  or  vegetable  substance  is 
left  in  a  moist  state  in  moderately  warm  air,  these 
minute  forms  enter  it  and  begin  at  once  to  take  it  to 
pieces.  It  has  been  conclusively  proven  that  no  putre- 
faction or  decay  ever  occurs  without  the  presence  of 
some  of  these  micro-organisms,  and  that  they  are  the 
cause  of  such  decay.  To  illustrate  the  power  which  they 
have,  it  is  only  necessary  to  notice  any  dead  animal  or 
vegetable  substance.  When  left  to  itself  such  material 
gradually  changes  its  appearance,  becomes  softer,  the 
liquids  evaporate,  the  gases  escape,  and  only  a  little 
earthy  matter  is  left.  This  is  all  the  work  of  these 


ALCOHOL.  41 

microscopic  objects.  They  have  succeeded  in  completely 
changing  the  character  of  the  animal  or  vegetable 
substance. 

Let  us  experiment  something  like  this :  Boil  a  piece 
of  meat  in  some  water  and  then  strain  the  mixture,  so 
that  only  a  clear  liquid  or  infusion  remains.  Now  if 
this  clear  solution  be  boiled  and  placed  in  a  bottle  while 
at  the  boiling  point,  and  the  bottle  tightly  sealed,  the 
solution  will  remain  clear  indefinitely.  A  similar  result 
is  shown  in  the  canning  of  fruits;  the  boiling  fruit  is 
placed  in  cans,  whicli  are  at  once  tightly  sealed.  Why 
do  not  these  canned  fruits  decompose  ?  Because  the 
heat  applied  to  them  destroys  all  the  micro-organisms,, 
and  because  no  others  can  gain  entrance  through  the 
tightly  sealed  vessels. 

Suppose,  however,  that  we  open  the  can  of  fruit  or 
the  bottle  of  meat  infusion.  In  a.  few  days  the  liquid 
will  become  cloudy,  a  scum  will  gather  on  the  surface, 
and  a  disagreeable  odor  will  be  given  off.  What  is  the 
cause  of  these  changes  ?  Micro-organisms  have  entered 
and  decomposition  is  taking  place.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  add  these  minute  objects  to  dead  substances  in  order 
that  they  decay.  The  germs  or  spores  that  cause  decay, 
as  has  been  stated,  float  about  in  the  air,  though  invisi- 
ble. In  fact  they  are  distributed  almost  everywhere 
throughout  nature. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  these  minute  organisms, 
each  of  whicli  takes  its  food  from  a  different  kind  of 
dead  substance,  and  in  so  doing,  causes  that  substance  to 
decay  or  go  to  pieces.  Some  of  these  micro-organisms 
are  called  "  bacteria,"  from  a  Greek  word  signifying 
staff  or  rod.  They  are  so  named  from  their  resem- 


42  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

blance,  as  seen  through  a  microscope,  to  minute  staves 
or  rods.  Other  organisms  are  known  as  ferments. 
Still  other  organisms  are  called  molds. 

Whenever  a  dead  substance  is  acted  upon  by  these 
micro-organisms  a  change  takes  place  which  is  called 
fermentation.  During  this  change  the  elements  which 
compose  the  fermenting  substance  are  separated.  These 
elements,  thus  set  free,  enter  into  other  combinations, 
forming  new  substances.  The  first  substance  may  be 
very  simple  and  wholesome;  but.  after  the  elements,  as 
carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen,  have  been  sep- 
arated by  the  process  of  fermentation,  they  may  unite 
again  in  a  very  different  manner,  producing  a  highly 
poisonous  compound. 

To  illustrate  this,  let  us  take  sugar,  which  is  com- 
posed of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  combined  in  a 
certain  exact  proportion,  and  dissolve  it  in  the  right 
amount  of  water,  and  add  some  ferment,  as  yeast.  This 
ferment,  which  cannot  work  on  dry  sugar,  causes  the 
union  of  the  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen  to  break  to 
pieces  and  new  compounds  to  be  formed.  Some  of  the 
carbon  and  oxygen  unite  to  form  carbonic  acid  gas  which 
escapes  in  bubbles  ;  while  the  remaining  carbon  and  oxy- 
gen, and  all  the  hydrogen  are  left  so  united  that  a  liquid 
is  formed  which  is  called  alcohol.  Alcohol,  therefore, 
is  a  result  of  one  kind  of  fermentation. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  fermentation.  For  instance, 
when  meat  decays,  the  process  is  called  putrefactive  fer- 
mentation ;  it  is  caused  by  a  certain  species  of  bacteria 
which  do  not  thrive  upon  preserves,  or  other  substances 
not  adapted  to  their  growth.  The  souring  of  milk  is 
called  lactic  fermentation ;  it  is  caused  by  another  spe- 


ALCOHOL.  43 

cies  of  bacteria,  which  changes  the  sugar  of  the  milk  to 
lactic  acid. 

The  decay  of  fruits  is  also  caused  by  micro-organisms, 
many  of  which  we  are  familiar  with  in  the  form  of 
molds.  The  microscope  shows  that  these  molds  are 
minute  plants,  the  spores  or  germs  of  which  are  float- 
ing everywhere  in  the  air. 

The  spores  of  other  micro-organisms  called  ferments 
float  in  the  air,  and  fall  upon  the  surface  of  fruits.  With 
them  are  also  the  spores  of  ferments,  which  are  also 
plants.  But  between  the  sweet  juices  of  the  fruits,  and 
the  ferments  there  is  a  sound  and  complete  membrane 
which  we  call  the  skin.  While  the  juice  remains  in  the 
fruits,  the  ferments  can  do  no  harm.  They  are  harmless 
if  taken  as  we  eat  the  fruit;  but  when  the  juices  are 
pressed  from  the  fruits,  these  ferments,  lodged  on  the 
surface,  are  washed  into  the  liquid.  If  this  mixture  be 
allowed  to  remain  in  a  moderately  warm  atmosphere, 
the  spores  of  the  ferments  soon  begin  to  grow  and 
multiply  with  great  rapidity. 

We  know  that  ripe  fruits  contain  more  or  less  sugar 
dissolved  in  the  water  or  juice  of  the  fruit.  As  we  have 
already  seen,  the  ferments  begin  at  once  to  take  oxygen 
from  the  sugar,  causing  the  sugar  to  break  to  pieces,  and 
to  form  two  new  substances,  —  carbonic  acid  gas  which 
escapes  in  bubbles,  and  alcohol  which  remains. 

Alcohol  is  the  product  of  this  process  of  fermentation. 
Although  sugar  and  water  are  such  harmless  foods,  yet 
by  the  action  of  the  minute  ferments,  a  narcotic  poison 
is  obtained  from  them.  Alcohol  is  called  a  narcotic 
poison  because  of  its  power  to  deaden  or  paralyze  the 
brain  and  nerves.  Like  opium,  tobacco,  and  other  nar- 


44  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

cotics,  its  chief  danger  lies  in  its  power  to  set  up  a 
continual  and  ever-increasing  demand  for  itself.  It  is 
more  dangerous,  therefore,  than  some  other  poisons, 
which,  taken  in  quantities  too  small  to  cause  death, 
may  pass  off  without  doing  appreciable  injury. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  is  evident  that  alcohol  is 
not  a  natural  part  of  fruits  or  grains.  With  these  facts 
in  mind  it  is  easy  to  understand  why  beer,  wine,  and  cider 
are  poisonous  liquors,  although  obtained  from  whole- 
some fruits  and  grains.  For  we  must  remember  that  it 
is  a  law  pervading  nature  that  fermentation  entirely 
changes  the  character  of  the  substance  it  works  upon. 
It  is  another  illustration  of  this  law  that  the  fruit  juices 
which  have  undergone  alcoholic  fermentation  will,  if  left 
to  themselves  in  warm  air,  be  entered  by  another  kind 
of  ferment  which  changes  the  alcohol  to  acetic  acid. 
This  change,  which  is  called  acetous  fermentation,  is  the 
one  that  turns  cider  to  vinegar. 

Cider.  The  juice  of  apples  when  first  pressed  from 
the  fruit,  consists  simply  of  water,  more  or  less  sugar, 
and  a  small  amount  of  acid.  Thus,  in  ordinary  cider- 
making,  the  proper  conditions  are  present  for  alcoholic 
fermentation  to  take  place.  These  conditions  are  :  water, 
sugar,  warm  air,  and  the  ever  present  ferment  germs 
which  float  in  the  air,  and  those  which  were  washed 
from  the  surface  of  the  fruit  while  it  was  being  ground 
and  pressed.  Thus  it  follows  that  within  a  few  hours 
after  the  juice  has  been  pressed  from  the  apples  the 
process  of  fermentation  is  well  under  way. 

When  obtained  from  the  mill  all  fresh  cider  is  ordi- 
narily more  or  less  contaminated  with  the  fermented 
juices  which  remained  in  the  mill  or  vats  from  the  pre- 


ALCOHOL.  45 

vious  grinding.  It  is  therefore  difficult  to  obtain  cider, 
even  directly  from  the  mill,  which  does  not  contain  more 
or  less  alcohol.  Certainly  there  is  no  sharp  line  between 
sweet  and  sour  cider.  If  cider  does  not  contain  alcohol 
it  is  harmless  ;  if  it  does,  it  is  injurious. 

As  nearly  all  so-called  "sweet  cider"  may  contain 
more  or  less  alcohol,  arid  as  alcohol  even  in  small  quan- 
tities has  the  power  to  create  an  appetite  for  more,  and 
as  the  delicate  tissues  of  the  human  system  are  easily  im- 
pressed, the  testimony  of  science  is  strongly  against  the 
use  of  cider  in  any  quantity.  It  is  certainly  true  that  the 
continuous  drinking  of  old  cider  makes  the  person  irrita- 
ble, blunts  the  finer  sensibilities,  and  weakens  the  will. 

Wine.  When  the  juice  is  pressed  from  the  grape,  the 
currant,  or  the  elderberry,  the  ferments  on  the  surfaces 
of  these  fruits  are  carried  into  the  juice  and  there  begin 
to  change  the  sugar  of  the  juice  as  in  the  case  of  cider. 
If  a  small  amount  of  sugar  be  added  to  the  juice  there 
is  then  so  much  more  material  on  hand  to  be  converted 
into  alcohol.  For  this  reason  it  is  true  that  homemade 
wines  often  contain  more  alcohol  than  the  wines  of  com- 
merce. Homemade  wines  may  be  "  pure "  as  to  their 
freedom  from  adulteration  by  drugs,  yet  the  one  great 
poison,  alcohol,  is  present ;  and  for  this  reason  they  are 
pernicious. 

Wine  is  the  earliest  known  and  most  extensively  used 
of  the  alcoholic  liquors.  Its  occasional  or  moderate  use 
is  never  safe,  although  it  has  been  so  considered  by  those 
who  were  ignorant  of  the  power  a  little  wine  has  to 
create  an  appetite  for  more.  No  one  can  tell  how  soon 
such  an  appetite  may  be  formed,  nor  how  soon  it  may 
become  an  uncontrollable  craving,  to  gratify  which  is  to 


46  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

invite  destruction.  Ignorance  of  these  facts,  or  a  mis- 
taken confidence  in  this  beverage,  has  not  prevented  the 
evil  results  that  follow  its  use. 

The  notion  is  quite  prevalent  in  many  sections  of  the 
country  that  a  greater  abundance  of  "  light  wines  "  would 
prevent  the  use  of  stronger  liquors,  and  thus  diminish 
intemperance.  But  the  steady  growth  01  intemperance, 
with  its  attendant  evils  of  immorality,  insanity,  and  other 
nervous  diseases,  in  wine-growing  countries,  where  light 
wines  are  cheap,  plentiful,  and  universally  used,  proves 
the  fallacy  of  this  idea. 

A  recent  alcoholic  commission,  appointed  by  the 
French  Minister  of  Finance,  reported  that  alcoholism 
threatens  the  people  of  France  with  rapid  degenera- 
tion ;  that  it  is  one  of  the  most  serious  dangers  of  the 
times.  Not  only  men  but  women  and  children  are 
affected.  Mental  diseases  hitherto  unknown  have  be- 
come common. 

Dr.  J.  G.  Holland,  after  spending  some  time  in  Swit- 
zerland, gave  the  following  testimony  as  to  the  effects  of 
light  wines  there  :  — 

"We  have  been  told  in  America,  and  I  fully  believed  it, 
that  if  a  people  could  be  supplied  with  cheap  wine,  they 
would  not  get  drunk,  —  that  the  natural  desire  for  some 
sort  of  a  stimulant  would  be  gratified  in  a  way  that  would 
not  only  be  harmless  to  morals,  but  conducive  to  health. 
I  am  thoroughly  undeceived.  The  people  drink  their  cheap 
wine  here  to  drunkenness.  A  boozier  set  than  hang  around 
the  multitudinous  cafes  here  it  would  be  hard  to  find  in 
any  American  city. 

"  The  steady  old  white-wine  topers  come  into  blossom. 
If  you  can  image  a  cauliflower  of  the  color  of  the  ordinary 


ALCOHOL.  47 

rad  cabbage  you  can  achieve  a  very  adequate  conception  of 
faces  that  are  not  uncommon  in  all  this  wine-growing 
region.  So  this  question  is  settled  in  my  mind.  Cheap 
wine  is  not  the  cure  for  intemperance.  The  people  here 
are  just  as  intemperate  as  they  are  in  America,  and  what  is 
more,  there  is  no  public  sentiment  that  checks  intemper- 
ance in  the  least.  The  wine  is  fed  freely  to  children,  and 
by  all  classes  is  regarded  as  a  perfectly  legitimate  drink. 

"  I  firmly  believe  that  the  wines  of  Switzerland  are  of 
no  use,  except  to  keep  out  whiskey,  and  that  the  advan- 
tages of  wine  over  whiskey  are  not  very  obvious.  It  is 
the  testimony  of  the  best  people  of  Switzerland  —  those 
who  have  the  highest  good  of  the  people  at  heart  —  that 
the  increased  growth  of  the  grape  has  been  steadily  and 
correspondingly  attended  by  the  increase  of  drunkenness. 
They  lament  the  planting  of  a  new  vineyard  as  we  at 
home  regret  the  opening  of  a  new  grog-shop.  They  expect 
no  good  of  it  to  anybody.  They  know  and  deeply  feel 
that  the  whole  wine-growing  enterprise  is  charged  with 
degradation  for  their  country." 

Beer.  Although  beer  is  made  from  grain  which  con- 
sists principally  of  starch,  this  starcli  is  readily  changed 
to  sugar  in  the  process  of  growing  and  sprouting.  It  k 
only  necessary  to  dissolve  out  the  sugar  from  grains 
which  have  sprouted  in  order  to  have  a  sweet  liquid  ;  and 
this  will  produce  alcohol  if  the  right  kind  of  ferments 
are  added.  Therefore,  to  this  sweet  liquid,  yeast,  which 
is  an  alcoholic  ferment,  is  added.  The  ferments,  or 
yeast,  begin  at  once  to  work  upon  the  sugar,  taking 
oxygen  from  it  and  leaving  carbonic  acid  gas  and  alco- 
hol. The  former  bubbles  up  through  the  liquid  an<? 
passes  into  the  air ;  while  the  latter  stays  in  the  beer 
EIops  also  are  added,  which  give  the  beer  a  bitter  taste. 


48  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 

The  food  value  of  grain  is  almost  entirely  lost  in  this 
fermenting  process,  while  the  resulting  alcohol  has  its 
ever  present  power  to  injure  and  degrade  the  drinker. 
Beer  so  undermines  the  physical  system  that  beer- 
drinkers  are  peculiarly  susceptible  to  disease,  and  have 
weakened  powers  of  recovery.  A  celebrated  physician 
says :  "  The  diseases  of  beer-drinkers  are  always  of  a 
dangerous  character,  and  in  case  of  an  accident  they 
can  never  undergo  the  most  trifling  operation  with  the 
security  of  the  temperate." 

Distillation.  In  such  mixtures  as  cider  or  wine,  the 
alcohol  forms  only  a  certain  per  cent  of  the  whole 
liquid.  To  separate  the  alcohol  from  the  other  ingredi- 
ents it  is  only  necessary  to  take  advantage  of  the  fact 
that  some  liquids  evaporate  much  more  easily  than 
others.  We  already  know  that  alcohol  .is  driven  off  by 
a  low  degree  of  heat,  even  before  the  water  in  the  mix- 
ture is  warm  enough  to  boil.  Therefore,  if  a  certain 
degree  of  heat  be  applied  to  wine,  the  alcohol  will 
be  expelled,  as  a  vapor,  before  much  of  the  water  is 
given  off.  Some  water,  however,  escapes  with  the 
alcohol,  together  with  some  aromatic  substances.  This 
is  brandy,  which  consists  of  about  fifty  per  cent,  or 
one  half,  alcohol. 

Brandy  is  also  distilled  from  the  fermented  juice  of 
many  other  fruits.  Whiskey  is  distilled  from  the  fer- 
mented grains.  In  Ireland  it  was  formerly  called  by  a 
very  characteristic  name,  the  translation  of  which  gives 
"  madness  of  the  head." 

Understanding  the  principle  of  fermentation  and  dis- 
tillation, it  is  easily  seen  how  a  large  number  of  highly 
intoxicating  drinks  can  be  obtained  from  a  great  variety 


ALCOHOL.  49 

of  sources.  For  instance,  by  steeping  roots  of  plants  or 
trees,  thus  extracting  their  flavor,  and  adding  sugar  and 
yeast,  it  becomes  an  easy  matter  to  obtain  a  product  of 
fermentation.  Some  of  these  are  called  homemade  beers. 
The  fact  that  they  contain  alcohol  is  their  condemnation. 
By  distillation  the  alcohol  and  aromatic  qualities  can 
be  separated,  and  powerful  drinks  obtained.  In  all 
parts  of  the  world  large  numbers  of  intoxicating  drinks 
are  obtained  in  this  way,  from  sweet  grasses,  from 
roots,  and  from  nearly  all  kinds  of  fruits  and  grains. 
That  evil  results  follow  their  use  in  all  lands  is  ODVI- 
ous  to  even  the  casual  observer. 

QUESTIONS. 

1 .  What  does  the  microscope  reveal  ? 

2.  How  do  these  micro-organisms  affect  dead  animal  and  vege- 
table matter  ? 

3.  What  is  necessary  for  decay  ? 

4.  How  can  we  illustrate  the  power  of  these  micro-organisms  ? 

5.  Describe  the  experiment  of  boiling  meat  in  water. 

6.  Why  do  not  canned  fruits  decompose  ? 

7.  Where  are  the  spores  or  germs  found  ? 

8.  Name  some  of  the  varieties  of  these  micro-organisms. 

9.  How  does  fermentation  affect  a  substance  ? 

10.  How  is  alcohol  made  from  sugar,  water,  and  yeast? 

11.  Give  illustrations  of  some  of  the  fermentations. 

12.  How  do  molds  cause  fruit  to  decay  ? 
13..  Why  is  alcohol  called  a  narcotic  poison? 

14.  Why  is  it  dangerous  ? 

15.  What  is  said  of  the  fresh  juice  from  fruit  ? 

16.  Why  is  there  likely  to  be  alcohol  in  so-called  sweet  cider? 

17.  Why  are  homemade  wines  and  pure  wines  not  harmless  ? 

18.  How  does  beer  affect  the  system  ? 

19.  What  are  some  of  the  distilled  liquors? 

20.  How  are  they  obtained  from  cider  or  wine  ? 

i 


50  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF  HEALTH. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

ADDITIONAL   FACTS   ABOUT   ALCOHOL. 

It  Creates  an  Appetite.  There  are  only  a  few  sub- 
stances which  have  the  power  to  create  an  uncontrol- 
lable appetite  for  themselves.  The  most  marked  of  these 
are,  opium,  tobacco,  Indian  hemp,  and  alcohol.  The 
peculiarity  of  these  drugs  is  that  when  once  used  there 
is  a  strong,  almost  irresistible  desire  to  use  them  again. 
The  amount  of  alcohol  in  cider,  beer,  or  ale,  is  sufficient 
to  create  this  desire.  A  few  glasses  of  wine  will  make 
such  an  impression  on  some  people  that  a  strong  desire 
for  more  of  the  stimulating  effect  is  established.  This 
is  due  entirely  to  the  presence  of  alcohol.  One  drink 
creates  a  desire  for  another,  until,  as  the  system  be- 
comes more  and  more  under  the  influence  of  the  alco- 
hol, the  desire  becomes  greater  and  greater.  A  small 
quantity  no  longer  satisfies,  and  the  amount  is  gradually 
but  steadily  increased.  Often  the  entire  body  is  ren- 
dered stupid  or  insensible  by  the  effort  to  satisfy  the 
demands  of  this  powerful  appetite. 

In  some  instances  a  very  little  is  sufficient  to  arouse 
a  desir^  for  drink  of  which  the  person  was  wholly  un- 
conscious, while  another  person  may  take  many  glasses 


ADDITIONAL  FACTS   ABOUT   ALCOHOL.  51 

before  he  is  aware  that  he  has  acquired  a  fondness  for 
it.  One  of  the  weighty  charges  science  has  to  bring 
against  alcohol  is,  that  it  has  -the  power  to  create  an 
ever-increasing  appetite  for  its  use.  We  know  of  only 
one  way  to  escape  this  power  :  avoid  all  drinks  which 
contain  the  smallest  quantity  of  alcohol. 

Brandy  sauce  or  wine  jelly  may  seem  like  very  inno- 
cent dishes,  yet  they  may  be  the  first  step  toward 
creating  this  appetite.  This  statement  does  not  come 
from  the  imagination  of  the  writer;  it  is  based  upon 
the  scientific  fact  that  alcohol  has  the  power  to  create 
an  appetite  for  itself,  and  that  this  appetite  increases 
as  the  years  go  by.  It  is  also  based  on  the  testimony 
of  hundreds  of  people. 

The  Appetite  may  be  Inherited.  It  is  generally  accepted 
that  the  continued  use  of  alcoholic  beverages,  for  a  con- 
siderable period  of  time,  produces  marked  changes  in 
the  whole  system.  These  will  be  brought  out  as  we 
study  the  various  organs  and  tissues.  It  is  safe  .to 
assert,  therefore,  that  alcohol  produces  a  disease,  known 
as  acute  or  chronic  alcoholism,  and  also  that  this  disease 
may  cause  changes  in  certain  organs  and  tissues. 

Now,  we  know  there  are  some  diseases  which  are  he- 
reditary. We  can  even  go  farther  than  this  and  state 
that  certain  peculiarities  and  irregularities,  the  so-called 
minor  ailments,  are  also  hereditary.  For  instance,  in 
families  who  have  a  "  nervous  history "  there  are  an 
unusual  number  of  headaches,  attacks  of  indigestion, 
sleeplessness,  and  neuralgia.  Certain  families,  for  a 
number  of  generations,  exhibit  peculiarities  of  tem- 
per, likes  and  dislikes,  fondness  for  certain  kinds  of 
work,  etc.,  which  are  doubtless  inherited. 


52  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 

The  various  forms  of  insanity  are  striking  examples 
of  the  power  of  disease  to  descend  from  one  generation 
to  another.  There  is  nothing  strange  or  unusual,  there- 
fore, in  the  fact  that  the  love  of  strong  drink  may  de- 
scend from  one  generation  to  another. 

Not  only  is  the  liking  for  alcoholic  liquors  a  legacy 
which  the  drinker's  innocent  children  often  inherit,  but 
the  irritability  of  temper,  the  lack  of  energy,  the  weak- 
ened will,  the  untruthfulncss,  and  the  propensities  to 
crime  which  the  confirmed  drinker  brings  upon  him- 
self, these  also  may  be  an  inheritance  passed  on  to  his 
children. 

It  is  a  Poison.  There  are  some  people  who  claim  that 
alcohol  should  not  be  called  a  poison.  What  is  a  poi- 
son ?  Webster  says  a  poison  is  "  any  substance  which 
when  introduced  into  the  animal  organism  is  capable  of 
producing  a  morbid,  noxious,  or  deadly  effect  upon  it." 
Let  us  study  this  definition  more  carefully,  and  obtain 
the  full  meaning  of  the  three  qualifying  adjectives. 
Webster  defines  them  as  follows:  "morbid,"  not  sound 
and  healthful ;  "  noxious,"  hurtful,  harmful,  injurious ; 
"deadly,"  capable  of  causing  death,  fatal. 

Judged  by  such  analysis,  there  can  be  no  hesitation  in 
classing  alcohol  with  the  poisons.  But  more  than  this  ; 
in  a  work  before  us  entitled,  "  Poisons  and  Their  Anti- 
dotes," we  notice  that  one  of  the  poisons  given  is  "  alco- 
hol, including  brandy,  wine,  and  all  spirituous  liquors." 
In  addition  to  this  we  have  the  testimony  of  a  large 
number  of  noted  physicians,  chemists,  and  men  of  wide 
experience  and  learning,  all  testifying  that  "  alcohol  is  a 
powerful  poison." 

It  Shortens  Life.     The  fact  that  total  abstinence  low- 


ADDITIONAL   FACTS  ABOUT  ALCOHOL.         53 

ers  the  death  rate  was  first  shown  by  a  Mr.  Nelson, 
of  England.  He  based  his  conclusions  upon  statistics 
which  he  had  been  collecting  for  many  years.  His  fig- 
ures showed  that  total  abstinence  tended  to  lengthen  the 
probable  life  of  mankind  over  twelve  years. 

For  many  years  a  large  life  insurance  company  kept 
a  separate  account  of  the  death  rate  among  the  total 
abstainers.  They  lately  reported  that  the  deaths  have 
been  29  per  cent  less  than  among  the  others  insured. 
Another  company  asserts  that  the  death  rate  among  total 
abstainers  is  from  30  to  40  per  cent  less  than  among 
those  not  so  classed.  Then,  too,  we  have  the  combined 
statement  of  twelve  presidents  of  life  insurance  com- 
panies, that  "  alcohol  tends  greatly  to  shorten  life." 

We  must  not  be  confused  by  noting  an  occasional  ex- 
ception to  this  rule.  The  physiological  effects  of  the 
continued  use  of  alcohol  are  such  that  there  can  be  but 
one  general  result,  —  a  weakening  of  all  the  powers  of 
man,  lowering  his  ability  to  withstand  disease,  produc- 
ing disease  itself,  and  thereby  shortening  his  days. 

It  is  a  Source  of  Crime.  In  England,  commissions 
have  carefully  investigated  and  reported  the  effects  of 
the  liquor  traffic  on  the  morals  of  men ;  in  our  country, 
eminent  judges,  who  have  extensive  experience  in  the 
trial  of  criminals  and  in  the  investigation  of  crime,  add 
their  testimony ;  the  "  London  Times "  and  eminent 
journals  in  our  own  country  give  the  results  of  special 
investigations ;  and  the  keepers  of  various  prisons  send 
in  their  reports.  From  such  source  of  information  we 
learn  that  four  fifths  of  all  the  crimes  committed  in  this 
country  are  caused,  directly  or  indirectly,  by  the  use  of 
alcoholic  drinks. 


54  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

It  is  a  Cause  of  Poverty.  From  such  sources  as  the 
above,  and  from  official  reports  of  various  State,  munici- 
pal, and  charitable  organizations,  we  learn  that  fully 
one  half  of  all  the  taxes  paid  by  the  people  is  required 
for  the  support  of  institutions  made  necessary  by  the  use 
of  alcoholic  drinks.  It  is  estimated  that  over  half  a  mil- 
lion of  persons  are  so  affected,  mentally  and  physically, 
by  the  use  of  alcohol  that  they  are  actually  unable  to 
labor,  or  attend  to  their  business.  These  same  authori- 
ties tell  us  that  strong  drink  is  the  cause  of  three  fourths 
of  the  pauperism  in  this  country. 

It  is  Dangerous  in  Small  Quantities.  One  of  the  argu- 
ments used  in  favor  of  drinking  beer  is  this  :  the  amount, 
of  alcohol  in  the  beer  is  so  small  that  no  harm  follows 
\ts  use.  On  this  point  Dr.  S.  H.  Burgen  says  :  " 1  think 
aeer  kills  quicker  than  any  other  kind  of  liquor.  My 
attention  was  first  called  to  its  effects  when  I  began 
examining  for  a  life  insurance  company.  I  passed  as 
unusually  good  risks  five  men,  who  seemed  in  the  best  of 
health,  and  to  have  superb  constitutions.  In  a  few  years 
I  was  surprised  to  see  them  drop  off,  with  what  ought 
to  have  been  mild  and  easily  curable  attacks  of  disease. 
Beer- had  greatly  reduced  their  power  to  resist  disease." 

Dr.  S.  S.  Thorn  testifies  as  follows  :  "  Adulterants  are 
not,  in  my  estimation,  the  important  thing;  it  is  the 
beer  itself.  Beer  accumulates  and  gathers  certain  per- 
nicious agencies  in  the  system,  until  they  become  de- 
structive. Every  man  who  drinks  beer  begins  to  load 
himself  with  soft,  unhealthy  fat." 

Dr.  Parmelee  says :  "  The  majority  of  beer-drinkers 
die  from  dropsy,  arising  from  liver  and  kidney  diseases, 
a  direct  result  of  their  habits  of  life." 


ADDITIONAL  FACTS   ABOUT   ALCOHOL.          55 

The  president  of  a  large  life  insurance  company  says  : 
"  Beer-drinking  in  every  case  is  peculiarly  deceptive  at 
first,  and  thoroughly  destructive  at  last." 

It  is  not  a  Food.  We  have  shown  that  "  alcohol  and 
all  spirituous  liquors  "  are  poisonous.  For  this  reason 
alone,  we  should  not  expect  to  find  them  valuable  for 
food.  Indeed,  there  is  nothing  about  alcohol  that  gives 
us  any  idea  it  has  food  value.  It  cannot  build  up  any  of 
the  tissues  of  the  body,  while  it  is  often  the  cause  of 
their  breaking  down.  It  contains  no  albuminous,  starchy, 
or  mineral  ingredients ;  while  the  water  existing  in  the 
alcoholic  beverages  can  be  obtained  much  purer  else- 
where. Then  again,  close  observation  of  its  effects  on 
man  does  not  warrant  us  in  believing  that  it  has  any 
value  whatever  as  a  food. 

This  latter  statement  might  not  seem  true,  at  first 
sight,  in  the  case  of  beer ;  for  heavy  beer-drinkers  are 
very  likely  to  be  fleshy.  But  what  is  the  true  condition 
of  such  a  body  ?  Certainly  not  one  of  health.  For, 
while  the  fat  is  being  deposited  beneath  the  skin  so  that 
the  whole  body  looks  plump  and  well  kept,  the  fat  is  also 
being  deposited  in  the  deeper  parts  of  the  body. 

In  the  muscular  tissue  of  the  heart  and  in  the  cells 
of  the  liver  this  unhealthy  accumulation  of  fat  is  also 
deposited.  The  heart  is  thereby  greatly  weakened,  so 
that  it  cannot  do  its  work  well.  This  causes  poor  circu- 
lation, shortness  of  breath,  and  often  sudden  death. 
The  liver  cannot  perform  its  full  work,  and  the  usual 
results  of  such  trouble  follow.  The  blood  vessels  be- 
come weakened  from  a  deposit  of  fat  in  their  walls, 
making  them  much  more  liable  to  rupture  in  the  brain, 
causing  death  from  apoplexy.  Then,  too,  the  whole 


56  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

muscular  system  becomes  greatly  weakened ;  and  at  the 
same  time  all  the  more  important  organs  and  tissues  in 
the  body  lose  their  proper  structure  and  become  more  or 
less  changed  into  fat.  Any  agent  which  is  capable  of 
bringing  about  such  changes  in  the  system  has  no  place 
in  the  list  of  foods. 

Alcohol  in  whatever  quantity  or  form  taken,  never 
aids  in  the  building  up  of  muscle,  while  its  tendency  is 
to  destroy  ;  it  never  furnishes  nourishment  to  the  brain, 
but  tends  to  weaken  and  dethrone  the  reason ;  it  never 
relieves  the  heart  of  any  work,  but  often  so  weakens  it 
that  the  work  is  accomplished  with  great  difficulty. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  substances  have  the  power  to  create  an  appetite  for 
themselves  ? 

2.  What  is  a  peculiarity  of  these  drugs?  , 

3.  Is  a  large  amount  of  alcohol  necessary  to  arouse  this  desire  ? 

4.  What  is  one  of  the  strongest  charges  against  alcohol? 

5.  How  can  we  escape  this  power  ? 

6.  The  continued  use  of  alcoholic  beverages  produces  what  ? 

7.  What  disease  is  produced  by  alcohol  ? 

8.  What  is  said  about  hereditary  diseases  ? 

9.  May  the  desire  for  alcoholic  liquors  be  hereditary  ? 

10.  What  proof  have  we  that  alcohol  is  a  poison  ? 

1 1 .  How  does  alcohol  affect  the  length  of  life  ? 

12.  Does  it  cause  crime  ?     Poverty  ? 

13.  Are  lar'ge  quantities  necessary  for  it  to  do  harm  ? 

14.  What  is  said  of  alcohol  as  a  food  ? 

15.  Repeat    the    eight    sub-heads    in   this   chapter,  —  the   eight 
charges  against  alcohol. 


DIGESTION.  57 


CHAPTER  VIT 

DIGESTION. 

Digestion.  The  substances  necessary  for  the  growth 
of  vegetables,  as  a  rule,  are  taken  directly  from  the  soil 
without  change.  The  vegetables  take  their  food  as  they 
find  it.  The  materials  which  are  suitable  for  the  growth 
of  the  plant  are  found  at  its  roots  in  such  a  condition 
that  no  marked  alteration  is  necessary  before  they  can 
be  absorbed.  At  least,  this  appears  to  be  the  general 
rule.  But  with  man  this  rule  does  not  apply. 

Little  of  our  food  comes  from  the  inorganic  world. 
It  was  once  organized,  and  formed  a  part  of  the  ani- 
mal and  vegetable  kingdoms.  As  a  rule,  man  does 
not  take  his  food  as  he  finds  it.  It  has  to  pass 
through  a  series  of  changes  before  it  becomes  ab- 
sorbed into  his  system.  The  meats,  fruits,  and  veg- 
etables are  taken  into  the  stomach  in  a  solid  and 
insoluble  condition.  The  object  of  digestion,  therefore, 
is  to  dissolve  and  change  the  food  in  order  that  it 
may  be  absorbed. 

Digestive  Fluids  must  Vary.  As  the  food  consists  of 
a  variety  of  substances,  with  different  physical  and 
chemical  properties,  so  there  are  several  digestive  fluids, 
each  having  its  own  particular  effect.  These  juices  are 


58  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

derived  from  minute  glands,  situated  in  the  lining  mem- 
brane of  the  alimentary  canal,  and  from  a  few  larger 
glands  lying  near  this  canal,  with  ducts  leading  directly 
into  it.  As  the  food  passes  down  the  alimentary  canal, 
it  comes  in  contact  with  these  juices,  and  portions  of  it 
become  liquified,  in  which  condition  it  can  be  taken  up 
by  the  absorbent  vessels. 

Digestive  Apparatus  in  Different  Animals.  It  is  very 
interesting  to  study  the  variety  of  arrangements  of  the 
digestive  apparatus  in  the  lower  animals.  As  the  dif- 
ferent species  of  animals  vary  in  their  habits  and  in  the 
food  they  use,  so  we  find  a  corresponding  variation  in 
the  anatomy  of  their  digestive  apparatus.  For  instance, 
in  those  animals  which  live  upon  vegetable  substances, 
the  digestive  apparatus  is  very  complex.  This  is  neces- 
sary because  such  a  large  amount  of  food  is  required 
in  order  that  the  proper  amount  of  nutriment  may  be 
taken  from  it.  The  digestible  material  bears  only  a 
small  proportion  to  the  entire  quantity  of  food  taken. 
Therefore  the  alimentary  canal  must  be  very  large  and 
long. 

Take  the  case  of  the  common  fowl,  whose  food  is 
much  more  concentrated  than  that  of  many  other  ani- 
mals. At  first,  the  hard  grains  are  swallowed  and  held 
for  some  time  in  a  pouch  called  the  crop.  Here  the 
food  mixes  with  a  watery  secretion  by  which  it  is 
softened  ;  as  the  softened  food  passes  down  out  of 
the  crop  it  comes,  in  contact  with  an  acid  secretion 
which  is  poured  from  glands  in  the  walls  of  the  tube. 
The  food  then  passes  into  the  gizzard,  which  has  a 
very  thick,  muscular  wall.  This  grinds  and  crushes 
the  food,  aided  by  the  sand  or  gravel  the  animal  has 


DIGESTION.  59 

swallowed,  until  the  mass  is  reduced  to  a  pulpy  con- 
sistence. Farther  down  the  canal  the  food  is  mixed 
with  more  juices,  which  render  it  still  more  soluble. 
All  this  complicated  apparatus  is  for  the  accomplish- 
ment of  one  object,  the  changing  of  the  food  so  that 
it  may  be  absorbed. 

In  the  ox,  sheep,  and  some  other  animals,  there  are 
four  distinct  stomachs,  each  performing  a  different  part 
of  the  digestive  process.  The  digestive  apparatus  of 
man  is  not  thus  complex,  because  his  food  is  compar- 
atively soft,  easily  made  softer  by  cooking,  and  also 
because  but  little  bulk  is  required  to  furnish  the  proper 
amount  of  nutritive  material.  Yet  a  careful  study  of 
the  process  as  it  exists  in  man,  will  show  that  it  is 
filled  with  difficult  problems. 

The  Alimentary  Canal.  Beginning  at  the  mouth,  the 
alimentary  canal  extends  through  the  body.  It  is  about 
thirty  feet  in  length  in  the  adult,  and  is  lined,  its  en- 
tire length,  by  a  soft,  velvety  tissue  called  the  mucous 
membrane.  In  this  membrane  are  minute  glands,  some 
of  which  secrete  mucus,  while  others  secrete  some  of 
the  digestive  juices.  It  is  in  this  canal  that  the  process 
of  digestion  occurs.  From  above  downwards  are  seen 
the  following  parts:  the  mouth,  pharynx,  oesophagus, 
stomach,  small  intestine,  and  large  intestine.  A  study 
of  Fig.  8  will  aid  in  understanding  the  location  and 
form  of  these  several  parts. 

The  pharynx  extends  from  behind  the  mouth  about 
four  and  one  half  inches  down  the  neck,  where  it  be- 
comes continuous  with  the  ossophagus.  The  oesophagus, 
1,  is  about  nine  inches  in  length,  and  extends  from  the 
pharynx  to  the  stomach.  The  stomach,  2,  is  the  most 


60 


THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 


dilated  portion  of  the  canal.     It  lies  transversely  in  the 
ahdominal  cavity,  and  is  connected  below  with  the  small 

intestine,  7,  which  is 
about  twenty  feet  in 
length.  This  termi- 

3  HI89^tet  nates    in    the   large 

intestine,  8.  It  will 
be  noticed  that  the 
small  intestine  oc- 
cupies the  center  of 
the  abdominal  cavi- 
ty, while  the  large 
intestine  passes 
around  the  borders 
of  the  cavity.  All  of 
Fig.  8,  except  1,  rep- 
resents that  part  of 
the  alimentary  canal 
situated  below  the 
diaphragm,  in  the 
abdominal  cavity. 

Mastication.  Mas- 
tication, or  chew- 
ing, consists  in  cut- 
ting and  grinding 
the  food  by  the  teeth. 
It  is  purely  a  me- 
chanical process,  yet 
it  is  necessary  in  order  that  the  food  may  be  better  pre- 
pared for  the  action  of  the  digestive  juices  ;  for  the  finer 
the  particles  of  food  are,  so  much  the  better  can  these 
juices  act  upon  them. 


FIG.  8.  The  alimentary  canal:  (1)  The 
oesophagus;  (2)  the  stomach;  (3)  the  py- 
lorus; (4)  the  gallbladder;  (5)  the  duct 
carrying  bile  to  the  intestine  ;  (6)  the  duct 
from  the  pancreas  ;  (7)  the  small  intestine  ; 
(8)  the  large  intestine. 


DIGESTION. 


61 


very  important  result  accompanying  mastication 
is  the  thorough  mixing  of  the  food  with  the  saliva.  As 
a  result  of  this,  the  food  is  moistened  and  prepared  for 
swallowing,  while  at  the  same  time  some  of  its  starchy 
elements  are  changed  into  sugar.  The  solid  and  semi- 
solid  foods  should  be  chewed  very  fine.  One  of  the  most 
common  causes  of  stomach  trouble  is  incomplete  masti- 
cation, a  result  of  too  rapid  eating.  Let  nothing  pass 
down  the  throat  that  is  not  crushed  and  finely  divided. 

The  Teeth,  For  reasons  just  mentioned,  the  teeth  are 
most  important  aids  to  perfect  digestion.  As  the  habits 
and  foods  of  animals  differ,  so  do  their  teeth  vary  in 
form  and  function,  in  order  to 
best  serve  particular  needs. 
Fish  and  serpents,  that  swal- 
low their  food  entire,  have  no 
need  for  any  cutting  or  grind- 
ing. The  function  of  the  teeth  FlG'  9'  The  sku11  of  a  snake* 
in  these  animals  is  restricted  to  seizing  and  holding  the 
food.  Therefore  their  teeth  are  sharp  and  curved,  with 

the  points  set  back- 
ward, so  that  when 
once  the  prey  is  caught 
it  is  very  difficult  for 
it  to  escape.  In  the 
horse  and  allied  ani- 
mals, there  are  two 

FIG.  10.     The  skull  of  a  horse.  kindg  of  teeth?  _  thoge 

in  front,  the  incisors,  for  cutting  off  the  herbage ;  and 
those  farther  back,  the  molars,  for  grinding. 

In  the  gnawing  animals,  as  the  rats,  mice,  and  squir- 
rels, the  incisor  teeth  are  remarkably  developed.     Their 


62  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

edges  are  sharp  and  chisel-shaped,  and  they  are  directly 
opposed  to  each  other  in  the  upper  and  lower  jaws.  They 
are  peculiar  also  because  they  grow  so  that,  as  the  ends 
are  worn  away,  the  tooth  is  pushed  up  from  its  roots, 
thus  keeping  its  normal  length.  Sometimes  one  of 
these  animals  has  one  of  its  incisor  teeth  broken  off, 
or  injured  so  that  it  fails  to  grow.  The  corresponding 
tooth  in  the  other  jaw  then  has  no  tooth  against  which  to 
cut,  and  hence  it  is  not  worn  away.  It  keeps  on  grow- 
ing, sometimes  to  an  extent  sufficient  to  cause  the  death 
of  the  animal,  by  preventing  it  from  getting  its  food. 

Development  and  Growth  of  Teeth.  In  man,  the  teeth  are, 
at  first,  masses  of  soft  tissue  within  the  jawbones.  They 
gradually  assume  their  characteristic  shapes,  and  are  fully 
formed  before  they  appear  through  the  gums.  They  are 
not  capable  of  self-repair ;  neither  do  they  grow  nor 
change  in  shape  after  they  are  once  formed. 

Two  Sets  of  Teeth.  The  jaws  of  a  child  are  not  so 
large  as  those  of  an  adult,  hence  they  could  not  hold  the 
teeth  of  a  full-grown  person.  To  compensate  for  this 
there  are  two  sets  of  teeth.  The  teeth  of  the  first  set 
are  called  the  milk,  or  temporary  teeth. 

The  first  teeth  of  the  temporary  set  appear  about  the 
sixth  or  seventh  month ;  they  appear  one  -by  one,  until 
the  whole  set  of  ten  for  each  jaw  is  complete  by  the  end 
of  the  second  year.  In  five  or  six  years  these  loosen 
and  are  removed,  and  the  permanent  teeth  begin  to  ap- 
pear. At  twelve  or  thirteen  years  of  age  the  full  set  of 
permanent  teeth  is  present,  except  the  wisdom  teeth. 
These  usually  do  not  appear  until  the  person  is  twenty 
or  twenty-five  years  of  age.  The  permanent  teeth  are 
thirty-two  in  number,  sixteen  for  each  jaw.  They  are 


DIGESTION. 


63 


fully  developed  in  the  jawbones,  beneath  the  temporary 
teeth,  before  they  appear. 

Their  Arrangement.  Beginning  at  the  middle  line  of 
either  jaw,  and  proceeding  backwards,  the  permanent 
teeth  are  placed  in  the  following  order,  see  Fig.  12 : 
two  incisors,  for  cutting  the  food ;  one  canine,  or  eye- 
tooth,  pointed  and  serving  the  same  purpose  as  the 
incisors ;  two  bicuspids,  or  small  molars ;  and  three 


FIG.  11.  The  teeth  of  an  adult:  (1)  an  incisor,  or  cutting  tooth; 
(2)  a  canine,  or  eyetooth  ;  (3)  molars  of  the  lower  jaw  ;  (4)  molars  of  the 
upper  jaw. 

large  molars,  for  grinding  and  crushing.  The  tempo- 
rary teeth  are  arranged  as  follows  :  two  incisors  ;  one 
canine  ;  and  two  molars.  Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  places 
occupied  by  the  molars  of  the  child  are  filled  later  with 
the  two  bicuspids  of  the  adult. 

The  incisor  and  canine  teeth  resemble  each  other  very 
much,  only  if  seen  in  profile  it  would  be  found  that  the 
crown  of  the  incisor  is  thinner  and  flatter,  and  has  a 
more  cutting  edge.  The  crown  of  the  canine  is  more 
nearly  round,  more  pointed,  and  better  made  for  tearing. 
The  molars  of  the  lower  jaw  have  but  two  roots,  or 
fangs,  while  the  upper  molars  have  three. 

The  Structure  of  Teeth.  Each  tooth  consists  of  the 
crown,  or  the  part  projecting  into  the  mouth  ;  the  neck, 


64 


THE   ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 


or  the  part  surrounded  by  the  gums ;  and  the  root,  or 
the  part  deeply  seated  in  a  bony  soeket.     When  broken 


FIG.  12.  A  side  view  of  the  lower  jaw  with  the  outer  walls  of 
bone  removed,  showing  the  teeth  in  proper  place  :  (1)  the  two  incisors ; 
(2)  the  canine ;  (3)  the  two  bicuspids  ;  (4)  the  three  lower  molars ; 
(the  last  molar  is  sometimes  called  the  wisdom  tooth) ;  (5)  a  blood  vessel; 
(6)  a  nerve. 

open,  a  tooth  is  seen  to  be  hollow.  Fig.  13  illustrates 
the  shape  of  this  central  cavity.  It  conforms  to  the 
general  outline  of  the  tooth,  and  thus  varies  in  form  for 
the  several  teeth.  In  the  living  tooth  this  cavity  is 
filled  with  nerves  and  blood  vessels,  which  are  held 
together  by  a  delicate  connective  tissue.  This  is  called 
the  pulp  of  the  tooth.  When  inflamed  it  gives  rise  to 
a  most  intense  toothache. 

Surrounding  the  crown  of  the  tooth  is  the  hardest 
substance  in  the  body,  called  the  enamel ;  around  the 
root  is  a  thin  layer  of  bone,  called  cement ;  but  the 
greater  part  of  the  tooth  consists  of  a  hard  substance, 
called  dentine,  or  ivory.  The  dentine  surrounds  the 


DIGESTION. 


65 


pulp  cavity  and  extends  outwards  to  the  enamel  and 
cement :  in  structure  it  is  like  the  tusk  of  the  elephant, 
harder  than  bone  but  not  so  hard  as  the  enamel. 

The  figure  shows  that  it  is 
pierced  with  innumerable  fine 
canals  that  extend  from  the 
pulp  to  the  very  outside  edge 
of  the  dentine.  These  canals 
are  filled  with  fibers  of  living 
matter  which  are  connected 
with  the  cells  of  the  pulp. 
With  the  exception  of  the 
enamel,  therefore,  a  tooth  is 
a  living  tissue,  having  nerves 
and  blood  vessels  in  its  cen- 
ter, bone  cells  in  the  cement 
around  its  roots,  and  innu- 
merable fibers  of  tissue  pen- 
etrating the  dentine.  With 
this  knowledge  it  is  not  strange 
that  decay  should  make  the 
teeth  ache,  and  that  extract- 
ing them  should  cause  pain. 
Yet  with  all  this  living  matter 
entering  into  their  structure 
they  cannot  repair  themselves 
when  injured.  They  should 
receive,  therefore,  daily  atten- 
tion and  the  best  of  care. 

Care  of  the  Teeth.     The  im- 


FIG.  13.  Longitudinal  sec- 
tion of  a  tooth  :  (1)  the  enamel ; 
(2)  the  dentine  ;  (3)  the  cement; 
(4)  the  pulp  cavity. 


portance  of  the  teeth  to  the  personal  appearance,  as  well 
as  their  relation  to  the  digestive  function,  is  so  evident 

5 


66  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 

that  it  is  surprising  so  little  attention  is  given  them. 
They  should  be  cleaned  at  least  once  each  day.  Consult 
a  dentist  as  soon  as  any  cavity  is  discovered,  although  a 
better  plan  is  to  have  the  teeth  examined  by  a  dentist 
every  few  months.  Some  teeth  decay  much  more  easily 
than  others.  This  may  be  due  to  a  defect  in  their  com- 
position. The  defect  may  be  hereditary  or  caused  by 
lack  of  proper  food  when  the  teeth  were  forming.  An 
unhealthy  saliva,  decomposing  food  between  the  teeth, 
and  other  conditions  may  be  the  exciting  or  active  causes 
of  decay.  Germs  also  cause  the  decay  of  teeth  in  the 
same' manner  that  they  cause  other  tissues  to  decay. 

The  Saliva.  The  saliva  is  a  fluid  mainly  derived  from 
three  pairs  of  large  glands.  Mixed  with  the  saliva  is 
some  mucus  from  the  mucous  glands  situated  in  the 
lining  membrane  of  the  mouth.  Two  pairs  of  the  sali- 
vary glands,  the  submaxillary  and  sublingual,  are  situated 
beneath  the  tongue  and  between  the  two  sides  of  the  lower 
jawbone.  The  ducts  which  convey  the  secretions  of  these 
glands  open  into  the  mouth  just  beneath  the  tongue. 
The  other  pair  of  glands,  the  parotid,  is  situated  a  little 
below, and  directly  in  front  of  the  ears.  When  inflamed, 
these  glands  become  swollen  and  painful,  and  cause  the 
disease  known  as  mumps.  The  duct  from  each  gland 
opens  into  the  mouth  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  cheek 
opposite  the  second  molar  tooth  of  the  upper  jaw. 

A  drop  of  the  saliva  examined  under  the  microscope 
shows  a  number  of  old  cells  that  have  fallen  from  the 
lining  membrane  of  the  mouth.  Fig.  14  illustrates  these 
cells  together  with  others  which  have  escaped  from 
the  lymphatic  vessels ;  they  are  therefore  called  lymph 
corpuscles.  The  vast  number  of  epithelial  cells  always/ 


DIGESTION. 


67 


FIG.  14.  Cells  found  in  the  saliva,  mag- 
nified: (1)  epithelial  cells  from  the  mucous 
membrane  lining  the  mouth  ;  (2)  lymph 
corpuscles  that  have  escaped  from  the  lym- 
phatics of  the  mouth. 


found  in  the  saliva  gives  another  striking  proof  that 

the  body  is  rapidly  and  continuously  changing ;  for  new 

cells  must  take  the 

place  of  the  old,  as 

rapidly  as  they  are 

removed. 

Uses  of  Saliva.  The 
saliva  is  a  constant 
secretion,  although 
it  can  be  greatly  in- 
creased by  the  move- 
ments of  the  jaws, 
especially  when  food 
,is  being  masticated. 
The  saliva  is  essen- 
tial in  order  to  keep 
the  tissues  about  the  mouth  and  throat  moist.  It  is 
extremely  difficult  to  speak  if  the  mouth  be  dry,  as 
many  a  young  orator  knows.  The  nervousness  caused 
by  his  first  appearance  in  public  temporarily  checks  the 
secretion  of  saliva,  and  the  mouth  becomes  so  dry  that 
speaking  is  almost  impossible. 

The  principal  function  of  the  saliva  is  to  moisten  the 
food,  and  thus  aid  in  its  mastication  and  solution  ;  for  it 
is  very  difficult  to  swallow  anything  that  is  hard  and 
dry,  unless  first  moistened  with  some  fluid.  The  saliva 
also  dissolves  certain  substances,  and  thus  enables  us  to 
taste  them ;  for  solid  bodies  cannot  be  tasted.  A  chem- 
ical examination  of  the  saliva  shows  that  it  contains  a 
peculiar  substance  called  ptyalin.  It  is  this  ingredient 
which  gives  the  saliva  its  power  to  change  starch  into 
sugar.  But  owing  to  the  short  time  the  food  is  kept  in 


68  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

the  mouth,  only  a  small  amount  of  the  starchy  foods  is 
thus  changed.  We  shall  learn,  later,  that  this  impor- 
tant change  principally  occurs  below  the  stomach. 

As  one  object  of  the  saliva  is  to  furnish  moisture,  so 
that  the  food  may  be  more  readily  swallowed,  it  follows 
that  it  is  not  necessary  to  wash  down  the  food  with  large 
quantities  of  some  fluid.  As  a  rule,  the  saliva  furnishes 
moisture  enough,  as  from  one  to  three  pints  are  secreted 
each  day.  While  there  is  no  harm  in  using  a  moderate 
amount  of  drink  with  our  meals,  yet  large  quantities 
are  certainly  injurious,  especially  if  they  be  either  very 
hot  or  very  cold. 

The  Pharynx.  The  pharynx  extends  from  the  back  of 
the  nasal  passages  downward  about  four  inches,  where 
it  becomes  continuous  with  the  oesophagus,  or  gullet. 
In  the  upper  part  of  the  pharynx,  on  a  line  with  the 
floor  of  the  nasal  passages,  are  the  openings  of  two 
tubes,  called  the  Eustachian  tubes.  Each  tube  extends 
from  the  side  of  the  upper  part  of  the  pharynx  to  the 
middle  ear.  A  disease  of  these  tubes  is  a  frequent 
cause  of  deafness. 

The-  pharynx  is  partly  divided  from  the  mouth  by  a 
curtain  hanging  down  from  above,  called  the  soft  palate. 
It  is  thus  named  to  distinguish  it  from  the  hard  palate, 
which  forms  the  roof  of  the  mouth.  From  the  center 
of  the  soft  palate  there  is  a  prolongation  downward, 
called  the  uvula,  often  incorrectly  called  the  palate. 

On  each  side  of  the  throat,  below  the  soft  palate,  is  a 
tonsil.  The  tonsils  are  often  enlarged,  interfering  with 
speech,  and  with  the  swallowing  of  food.  When  a  severe 
inflammation  of  the  tonsils  occurs,  it  is  known  as  the 
quinsy. 


DIGESTION.  69 

Swallowing,  Around  the  lower  part  of  the  pharynx 
are  muscles  which,  by  contracting,  aid  in  swallowing. 
The  food  is  prevented  from  entering  the  larynx,  or 
windpipe,  which  is  directly  in  front  of  the  pharynx,  by 
a  valve  which  shuts  tightly  down  as  the  food  passes 
over  it.  Occasionally  a  small  amount  of  food  or  drink 
gets  into  the  air  passages,  causing  violent  coughing  until 
it  is  expelled.  The  oesophagus  is  naturally  closed,  and 
thus,  when  a  mouthful  of  food  enters  it  from  the  phar- 
ynx, its  muscular  walls  contract  and  push  the  food 
along  until  it  reaches  the  stomach. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  the  object  of  digestion  ? 

2.  What  can  you  say  of  the  digestive  fluids  ? 

3.  Describe  the  digestive  apparatus  of  the  common  fowl. 

4.  What  animals  have  four  distinct  stomachs? 

5.  Give  a  general  description  of  the  alimentary  canal. 

6.  What  is  mastication  ?     Why  is  it  necessary  ? 

7.  What  accompanies  mastication  ? 

8.  How  many  sets  of  teeth  in  man? 

9.  How  many  teeth  in  the  temporary  set  ?  In  the  permanent  self 

10.  Describe  the  different  shapes  and  uses  of  teeth  ? 

11.  What  is  found  in  the  central  cavity  of  a  tooth? 

12.  Where  is  the  hardest  substance  in  the  body? 

13.  Describe  the  dentine? 

14.  How  should  we  care  for  the  teeth? 

15.  Where  are  the  three  pairs  of  salivary  glands  found  ? 

16.  What  does  the  microscope  show  in  saliva? 

1 7.  Give  some  of  the  uses  of  the  saliva. 

18.  How  does  the  saliva  affect  starch? 

19.  Describe  the  pharynx. 

20.  Where  is  the  soft  palate  ?     The  tonsils  ? 


70  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

DIGESTION   IN  THE   STOMACH   AND 
INTESTINE. 

The  Stomach.  The  stomach  occupies  the  upper  part 
of  the  abdominal  cavity.  To  its  extreme  left  is  the 
spleen ;  in  front  is  the  abdominal  wall ;  behind  are  the 
ribs;  below  are  the  pancreas  and  intestines;  above  is 
the  diaphragm;  and  to  the  extreme  right  is  the  liver. 
When  moderately  distended  -it  is  capable  of  holding 
about  three  pints. 


FIG.  15.     View  of  the  inside  of  the  stomach.     The  front  walls  have  been 
cut  away,  showing  the  mucous  lining  arranged  in  folds  or  plaits. 

The  opening  in  the  right  end,  through  which  the  food 
passes  out  of  the  stomach  into  the  intestine,  is  called 


DIGESTION. 


71 


the  pyloric  opening.  It  is  provided  with  a  thick  mus- 
cular band  arranged  in  a  circular  manner.  This  band 
is  known  as  the  pylorus,  so  named  from  a  Greek  word, 
signifying  a  gate.  It  is  illustrated  at  3,  Fig.  8.  The 
object  of  this  band  is  not  to  allow  the  food  to  pass  out 
of  the  stomach  until  it  has  been  properly  acted  upon  by 
the  gastric  juice. 

In  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach  are  found 
vast  numbers  of  minute  glands.  These  are  of  the  na- 
ture of  tubes,  or  canals,  lined  with  cells.  The  cells 
secrete  a  juice  called  the  gastric  juice.  This  is  poured 
into  the  stomach,  through  the  openings  of  the  glands, 
whenever  food  is  taken. 

Fig.  16  illustrates  a 
section  of  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  walls  of  the 
stomach.  If  this  section 
were  viewed  from  above, 
the  minute  depressions 
would  appear  as  circular 
openings.  This  section 

FIG.  16.  A  cross-section  of  a  small 
portion  of  the  walls  of  the  stomach, 
slightly  magnified,  showing  the  glands. 

trates  one  of  the  glands,  very  highly  magnified.  A  care- 
ful examination  of  this  figure  shows  two  kinds  of  cells 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  gland.  Of  such  use  is  the 
microscope  to  the  study  of  physiology  that  we  are  now 
able  to  understand  the  function  of  these  cells,  and  to 
affirm  that  one  kind  of  cells  secretes  a  certain  part 
of  the  gastric  juice,  while  another  kind  secretes  other 
parts. 


shows  that  the  depres- 
sions are  the  openings  of 
the  glands.  Fig.  17  illus- 


72 


THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 


The  Gastric  Juice.  The  gastric  juice  is  clear  and  color- 
less, in  this  respect  resembling  water.  But  it  contains 
two  marked  ingredients  not  found  in 
water ;  these  are  pepsin  and  an  acid. 
When  the  stomach  is  empty  and  its 
mucous  membrane  thrown  into  folds, 
the  membrane  is  of  a  pale  red  color, 
and  there  is  no  secretion  of  the  gastric 
juice.  Upon  the  introduction  of  food 
the  mucous  membrane  rapidly  fills 
with  blood,  becomes  bright  red  in 
color,  and  secretes  the  gastric  juice  in 
abundance.  Not  all  foods  are  digested 
in  the  stomach  by  the  gastric  juice, 
for  some  foods  pass  out  of  it  un- 
changed ;  this  is  true  of  the  oily  and 
starchy  foods. 

The  chief  characteristic  of  the  gas- 
tric juice  is  its  power  to  dissolve  and 
digest  foods  of  an  albuminous  nature, 
as  the  lean  meats,  and  the  white  of  eggs.  If  only  the 
proper  amount  of  these  be  taken,  they  are  completely 
digested  in  the  stomach  ;  but  if  more  be  taken  than  can 
be  digested  by  the  gastric  juice,  it  passes  out  into  the 
intestine,  where  the  work  is  completed  by  the  pancreatic 
juice.  We  shall  learn  that  the  pancreatic  juice  possesses 
the  same  power  to  digest  albuminous  foods  as  the  gastric 
juice. 

Action  of  Gastric  Juice  on  Different  Foods.  As  has  been 
stated,  the  albuminous  foods,  as  the  lean  meats,  white 
of  egg,  etc.,  are  digested  in  the  stomach.  In  bread, 
there  is  gluten  and  starch ;  the  former  is  liquefied  and 


FIG.  17.  One  of 
the  glands  of  the 
stomach,  highly  mag- 
nified. 


DIGESTION.  73 

digested  in  the  stomach,  while  the  latter  is  unaffected. 
Fatty  foods,  as  the  fat  of  flesh,  are  affected  but  slightly 
by  the  gastric  juice,  and  only  in  this  way,  —  the  gastric 
juice  liquefies  the  tissue  that  surrounds  the  fat  globules, 
thus  allowing  the  fat  to  escape  in  the  form  of  oil  drops. 
But  upon  the  fat  itself  the  gastric  juice  has  no  effect;  the 
fat  passes  out  of  the  stomach  unchanged.  Milk  is  coag- 
ulated, or  curdled,  soon  after  it  reaches  the  stomach. 
This  is  due  to  the  coagulation  of  the  casein.  The  gas- 
tric juice  digests  the  casein,  but  does  not  affect  the  oil 
drops,  or  fat.  The  vegetable  foods  are  digested  in  a 
similar  manner  to  that  already  described.  The  albu- 
minous matters  are  dissolved  and  digested,  while  the 
oily  and  starchy  ingredients  are  set  free  to  pass  ont  of 
the  stomach  unchanged.  As  the  contents  of  the  stomach 
begin  to  pass  through  the  pyloric  orifice  they  consist  of 
digested  albuminous  foods,  starch,  fat,  and  much  indi- 
gestible material.  To  this  mixture  the  name  chyme  has 
been  given. 

Movements  of  the  Stomach.  As  soon  as  the  food  reaches 
the  stomach  and  the  secretion  of  the  gastric  juice  com- 
mences, the  muscular  walls  of  the  stomach  begin  to  con- 
tract. These  contractions  produce  such  a  movement  of 
the  contents  of  the  stomach  that  the  food  and  gastric 
juice  are  thoroughly  mixed.  The  food  is  thus  carried 
back  and  forth,  to  every  part  of  the  stomach,  so  that  the 
whole  mass  may  be  penetrated  thoroughly  by  the  gastric 
juice,  and  digestion  go  on  simultaneously  in  all  parts. 

Conditions  Affecting  Digestion.  The  solid  foods  are 
more  easily  digested  if  the  pieces  be  minutely  divided ; 
therefore  swallowing  large  pieces  of  food  retards  diges- 
tion. Food  should  be  eaten  slowly,  that  the  gastric? 


74  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 

juice  may  be  formed  in  sufficient  quantity  to  be  thor- 
oughly mixed  with  it  as  it  is  swallowed.  A  glass  of 
very  cold  water,  hastily  swallowed  during  a  meal,  might 
be  sufficient  to  drive  the  blood  from  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  stomach  arid  check  the  action  of  the  glands. 
It  might  require  some  time  for  them  to  recover  from  the 
shock  of  the  cold,  during  which  but  little,  if  any,  gastric 
juice  would  be  secreted.  This  delay  would  prolong  di- 
gestion and  be  quite  likely  to  produce  some  form  of 
stomach  trouble.  Too  much  liquid  with  a  meal  dilutes, 
and  therefore  weakens  the  gastric  juice.  It  is  much 
better  to  quench  the  thirst  before  going  to  the  table. 
Mental  and  physical  fatigue  will  interfere  with  diges- 
tion ;  therefore  one  should  never  eat  a  hearty  meal  when 
very  tired,  either  from  manual  labor  or  from  severe 
mental  exercise.  A  short  rest  of  a  few  moments  before 
going  to  the  table  is  a  wise  precaution  in  such  cases.  If 
the  food  be  eaten  slowly  there  is  but  little  danger  of 
overloading  the  stomach,  but  rapid  eating  is  quite  likely 
to  result  in  overeating,  which  leads  to  many  troubles. 
Constant  eating,  or  eating  frequently  between  meals, 
does  not  give  the  glands  of  the  stomach  time  to  rest, 
and  an  imperfect  gastric  juice  is  secreted,  indigestion 
follows,  and  thus  chronic  dyspepsia  is  induced. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  dyspepsia  or  disordered 
digestion.  Some  are  easily  cured  by  a  proper  course  of 
diet,  but  many  are  not  dependent  upon  the  stomach 
alone,  and  are  relieved  with  great  difficulty.  A  few  sim- 
ple rules,  well  observed,  are  all  that  are  necessary  for 
those  who  are  yet  young  and  vigorous.  A  knowledge  of 
the  principles  of  digestion  as  here  given  will  enable  each 
one  to  be  his  own  guide  in  this  particular.  It  is  well  to 


DIGESTION.  75 

keep  in  mind  the  fact  that  the  most  serious  effects  pro- 
duced on  digestion  are  those  caused  by  the  use  of  alco- 
holic drinks. 

The  Time  Required  for  Digestion,  The  time  required 
for  foods  to  be  digested  in  the  stomach  was  first  ascer- 
tained by  a  Dr.  Beaumont,  who  experimented  upon  one 
of  his  patients.  This  patient,  Alexis  St.  Martin,  had  re- 
ceived a  gun-shot  wound  directly  over  the  stomach. 
After  the  wound  had  healed,  there  was  found  an  open- 
ing which  led  from  the  surface  of  the  body  directly  into 
the  stomach.  The  opening  was  usually  closed  .on  the 
inside  by  a  fold  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach 
falling  over  it ;  but  this  could  be  easily  pushed  aside  and 
the  whole  process  of  digestion  carefully  studied.  Since 
the  days  of  St.  Martin,  other  cases  have  occurred  of  such 
a  nature  that  similar  experiments  could  be  made.  These 
have  proved  that  the  time  required  for  the  stomach  to 
complete  its  work  depends  upon  many  circumstances, 
some  of  which  have  already  been  mentioned.  But  in  a 
healthy  person  it  is  claimed  that  digestion  is  completed 
in  from  one  to  five  hours.  The  following  table  will  give 

EASY  OF  DIGESTION.  MORE  DIFFICULT. 

h    m    I  h    m 

Rice,  boiled 1  00   I 


Apples,  sweet,  raw      .     .     .  1  30 

Milk 2  00 

Cabbage,  raw 2  00 

Oysters,  raw 2  30 

Potatoes,  baked 2  30 


Potatoes,  boiled 3  30 

Oysters,  fried 3  30 

Eggs,  hard  boiled    ....  3  30 

Pork,  broiled 3  30 

Beef,  fried 4  00 

Cheese  ...                        .  4  00 


Chicken,  boiled 2  45   |    Cabbage,  boiled      ....     4  30 

Eggs,  soft  boiled     ....     3  00       Duck,  wild,  roasted     ...    4  30 


Custard,  baked  .     .         .     .     3  00 


Pork,  fried 4  30 


Beef,  broiled 3  00   i   Pork,  roasted 5  15 

a  fairly  correct  idea  of  the  average  time  required  for  the 
digestion  of  several  different  foods,  including  those  di- 


76  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF    HEALTH. 

gested  in  the  stomach  and  those  which  undergo  this 
process  farther  down  the  alimentary  canal.  The  time 
is  given  in  hours,  h,  and  in  minutes,  m. 

The  Liver.  The  liver  is  the  largest  gland  iu  the  hod}7. 
It  is  situated  in  the  upper  part  of  the  abdominal  cavity, 
just  beneath  the  diaphragm.  The  greater  portion  of  it  is 
on  the  right  side  of  the  body,  although  some  of  it  ex- 
tends over  to  the  left  side.  A  reference  to  Fig.  43 
will  give  an  idea  of  its  location,  as  well  as  its  relation 
to  the  diaphragm  and  to  the  stomach.  The  microscope 
shows  that  the  liver  consists  largely  of  cells.  These 
cells  secrete  a  fluid,  called  bile  or  gall.  During  the 
intervals  of  digestion  the  bile  collects  in  a  sac,  situated 
on  the  under  side  of  the  liver,  and  called  the  gall  blad- 
der. The  liver  is  constantly  secreting  this  bile.  The 
bile  may  pass  directly  from  the  liver  into  the  intestine 
through  a  duct,  shown  in  Fig.  18,  at  7,  o"r  it  may  first 
collect  in  the  gall  bladder  and  pass  into  the  intestine 
through  another  duct,  at  8.  These  two  ducts,  however, 
unite  into  one,  at  9,  forming  one  large  bile  duct.  Just 
before  this  duct  opens  into  the  intestine  it  unites  with 
the  duct  from  the  pancreas,  and  the  two  terminate  in  a 
common  opening,  as  shown  at  10. 

The  Bile.  From  two  to  three  pints  of  bile  are  secreted 
each  day.  Many  experiments  have  proved  that  if  this 
secretion  be  prevented  from  entering  the  intestine,  or  if 
the  liver  should  fail  to  secrete  it,  sickness  and  death  will 
follow.  When  the  ducts  leading  from  the  liver  to  the 
intestine  become  stopped  up  in  any  way,  so  that  the  bile 
is  held  back,  the  blood  vessels  absorb  the  bile  and  carry 
it  to  all  parts  of  the  body.  This  makes  the  skin  yellow, 
as  in  cases  of  jaundice.  The  bile  aids  in  the  digestion 


DIGESTION.  77 

and  absorption  of  the  oily  and  fatty  foods.  It  moistens 
the  walls  of  the  intestine  and  renders  their  contents 
more  liquid.  It  also  does  much  to  prevent  the  decom- 
position of  food  while  it  is  in  the  intestinal  canal. 

The  Liver  Sugar.  We  know  that  all  the  starchy  foods 
must  be  changed  into  sugar  before  they  can  be  absorbed  ; 
therefore  all  the  starch  and  sugar  taken  into  the  body 
are  finally  absorbed  as  so  much  glucose,  or  grape  sugar. 
This  sugar  is  carried  directly  to  the  liver,  where  it  un- 
dergoes a  slight  change.  The  liver  stores  it  in  its  cells, 
only  to  give  it  up  again  to  the  blood  as  the  needs  of  the 
body  demand. 

The  Pancreas.  The  pancreas  is  situated  just  below  and 
under  the  stomach,  and  is  about  six  inches  in  length. 
The  duct  from  this  gland  opens  into  the  intestine,  in 
common  with  the  bile  duct,  about  four  inches  below 
the  pylorus.  In  the  lower  animals  the  pancreas  is 
known  as  the  sweetbread. 

The  pancreatic  juice  has  a  direct  action  on  all  fatty 
and  oily  foods.  It  is  the  only  digestive  juice  that  is  able 
to  completely  digest  the  fats  and  prepare  them  for  ab- 
sorption. It  changes  them  into  a  white,  opaque  emul- 
sion, called  chyle.  When  examined  with  the  microscope, 
chyle  is  found  to  consist  of  extremely  minute  particles 
of  fat  or  oil.  The  pancreatic  juice  is  also  capable  of 
changing  the  starches  into  sugar,  completing  the  work 
which  was  slightly  begun  by  the  saliva.  It  can  also 
digest  albuminous  foods,  although  this  is  principally 
done  in  the  stomach. 

The  Intestinal  Juice,  Situated  in  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  small  intestine,  are  minute  glands  :  these 
secrete  a  digestive  fluid,  called  the  intestinal  juice.  It 


THE 


78  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

aids  in  the  digestion  of  the  foods,  principally  the  starches 
and  the  fats. 


FIG.  18.  A  diagram  illustrating  the  position  of  the  pancreas  and  its 
relation  to  surrounding  parts  ;  (1)  the  stomach  ;  (2)  the  pylorus  ;  (3)  the 
small  intestine  ;  (4)  the  spleen  ;  (5)  the  pancreas  ;  (6)  the  duct  of  the 
pancreas  ;  (7)  the  bile  duct  from  the  liver;  (8)  the  bile  duct  from  the  gall 
bladder  ;  (9)  the  common  bile  duct,  formed  by  a  union  of  the  two  bile 
ducts.  The  common  bile  duct  unites  with  the  pancreatic  duct,  and  the 
one  duct  thus  formed  opens  into  the  small  intestine  at  10. 


DIGESTION.  79 

EFFECTS    OF    ALCOHOL    ON    THE    STOMACH. 

When  wine,  whiskey,  beer,  or  any  other  alcoholic 
liquor  comes  in  contact  with  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  stomach,  it  causes  an  increased  flow  of  blood  to  the 
part.  Irritated  by  the  presence  of  the  alcohol  the  glands 
throw  out  an  extra  quantity  of  gastric  juice.  On  this 
account  it  is  considered  by  some  an  aid  to  digestion,  but 
physiologists  who  have  studied  the  matter  say  that  the 
presence  of  the  food  itself  should  be  a  sufficient  stimulus, 
and  that  the  overwork  thus  thrown  upon  the  glands  by 
the  alcohol  soon  weakens  them  so  that  they  throw  out 
an  imperfect  juice.  The  mucous  membrane  becomes 
constantly  red  or  inflamed,  and  later  the  glands  become 
smaller  and  permanent  indigestion  results. 

Such  an  inflamed  condition  of  the  stomach  is  called 
gastric  catarrh.  The  inflammation  causes  an  unnatural 
heat  in  the  stomach,  together  with  a  sickening,  faint 
feeling.  To  quiet  the  burning  sensation  and  to  quench 
its  accompanying  thirst,  more  liquor  is  taken.  This 
appears  to  give  relief ;  but  the  relief  is  of  a  most  decep- 
tive kind.  The  alcohol  simply  deadens  for  a  short  time 
the  nerves  in  the  stomach.  The  apparent  temporary 
relief  is  to  the  drinker  a  sufficient  excuse  for  his  con- 
tinuing its  use.  Again  and  again  is  this  experiment  re- 
peated, while  the  inflamed  stomach  remains  a  witness 
to  the  folly  of  trying  to  put  out  a  fire  by  continually 
adding  more  fuel.  Persons  thus  addicted  to  the  use  oi 
alcoholic  drinks  many  times  make  earnest  efforts  to  do 
without  them  ;  but  the  craving  of  the  inflamed  stomach, 
the  unnatural  thirst,  and  the  strong  appetite,  all  appeal 
for  more  drink. 


80  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

Now,  what  is  the  condition  of  a  man  under  such  cir- 
cumstances ?  He  is  ill,  suffering  from  an  inflammation 
of  the  stomach  and  a  disordered  liver.  Weakened  in 
body  and  in  mind  by  the  disease,  he  should  be  treated  as 
a  sick  man,  and  by  a  skilful  physician  who  would  not 
make  matters  still  worse  by  prescribing  alcohol. 

The  long-continued  use  of  alcoholic  drinks  in  large 
doses  makes  most  marked  changes  in  the  structures  of 
the  stomach.  The  blood  vessels  become  permanently 
distended  with  blood,  thus  interfering  with  proper  cir- 
culation. As  a  result,  some  parts  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane become  so  diseased  that  they  break  down,  forming 
ulcers.  This  is  one  of  the  last  and  most  severe  effects. 
The  ulcers  give  rise  to  the  most  severe  pain,  and  this 
often  leads  to  the  use  of  some  form  of  opium. 

In  conclusion,  we  sum  up  the  effects  of  alcoholic 
beverages  on  the  stomach  as  follows  :  — 

A  small  dose,  when  not  repeated.  Increased  flow 
of  blood  to  the  stomach ;  digestion  retarded  by  the 
action  of  the  alcohol  on  the  gastric  juice ;  probable 
recovery. 

A  large  dose,  not  repeated.  Increase  of  the  above 
effects;  acute  inflammation  of  the  stomach;  digestion 
temporarily  checked.  Recovery  after  a  few  days,  or  the 
inflamed  condition  may  remain  a  long  time. 

A  very  large  dose,  not  repeated.  Increase  of  the 
above  effects ;  occasionally  sudden  death.  Recovery 
always  slow,  and  often  incomplete. 

Small  doses,  when  often  repeated.  A  slow,  chronic 
inflammation  of  the  stomach,  causing  dyspepsia.  Re- 
covery impossible  while  alcohol  is  used  :  out  possible  if 
its  use  be  stopped. 


DIGESTION.  81 

Large  doses,  long  continued.  Increase  of  the  above 
effects ;  the  glands  become  reduced  in.  size  ;  the  blood 
vessels  are  permanently  enlarged ;  sometimes  ulcera- 
tions  occur.  Complete  recovery  doubtful,  even  if  the 
use  of  alcohol  be  stopped. 

Very  large  doses ,  often  repeated.  Increase  of  above 
effects  ;  stomach  retains  but  little  if  any  food ;  great 
pain  ;  opium  used ;  ulcerations  deeper ;  hemorrhages ; 
death. 

Effect  on  the  Liver.  The  secretion  of  bile  and  the 
storing  up  of  the  liver  sugar  can  only  be  carried  on 
properly  in  a  healthy  liver.  Each  cell  must  be  ready  to 
do  its  part.  Alcohol  makes  marked  changes  in  the 
liver,  resulting  in  great  impairment  of  digestion,  and, 
therefore,  of  the  whole  system. 

It  is  probable  that  nearly  all  the  alcohol  taken  as 
a  drink  is  absorbed  while  in  the  stomach.  From  the 
stomach,  the  blood  vessels  carry  it  directly  to  the  liver, 
where  it  does  immense  harm.  It  may  cause  the  liver 
to  become  large  and  fatty,  as  it  does  in  those  who  drink 
beer.  In  these  cases  the  microscope  shows  that  each 
cell  has  become  filled  with  minute  globules  of  fat.  Such 
a  condition  is  represented  in  Fig.  19,  at  B.  These  fat 
globules  cannot  make  bile,  neither  can  they  store  up  the 
liver  sugar  ;  therefore  the  liver  becomes  a  great  mass  of 
fatty  tissue,  unable  to  do  the  work  assigned  it. 

After  the  long-continued  use  of  alcoholic  beverages, 
especially  whiskey,  brandy,  and  gin,  the  liver  undergoes 
other  changes.  It  becomes  greatly  reduced  in  size  and 
much  too  hard.  Such  a  liver  is  so  characteristic  of 
alcohol  poisoning  that  medical  authorities  have  given 
it  the  distinct  name  of  the  "  drunkard's  liver."  The 


82  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 

microscope  shows  the  cells  of  such  a  liver  to  be  much  re- 
duced in  size,  and  otherwise  changed  in  appearance. 

The  liver  is  probably  one  of  the  first  organs  to  be  seri- 
ously affected  by  alcohol.     If  it  cannot  perform  its  func- 


FIG.  19.  (A)  Liver  cells,  highly  magnified,  from  a  healthy  liver. 
( B)  Liver  cells,  highly  magnified,  from  a  fatty  liver,  the  oil  globules 
take  the  place  of  healthy  liver  substance. 

tions  properly  the  health  of  the  whole  body  will,  sooner 
or  later,  become  seriously  affected.  Alcohol  does  not 
simply  interfere  with  the  functions  of  the  liver  ;  but  it 
strikes  deeper,  and  actually  changes  the  very  structure 
of  that  important  organ. 

Effects  of  Tobacco  on  Digestion.  Digestion  is  often  im- 
paired in  those  who  use  tobacco.  By  chewing  tobacco  the 
salivary  glands  are  constantly  overworked,  so  that  when 
the  saliva  is  most  needed,  at  mealtime,  an  insufficient 
amount  is  furnished.  This  necessitates  the  use  of  some 
other  liquid  to  moisten  the  food  ;  therefore  an  excessive 
amount  of  water,  tea,  or  coffee  is  used.  The  more  gen- 
eral effects  are  of  a  secondary  nature.  The  nicotine  is 
absorbed  in  sufficient  amount  to  affect  the  nervous  sys- 


DIGESTION.  83 

tern,  giving  rise  to  a  kind  of  indigestion  called  nervous 
dyspepsia. 

Opium.  Opium  is  such  a  powerful  narcotic  that  mod- 
erate doses  of  it  are  sufficient  to  check  nearly  all  the 
phenomena  of  life,  while  large  doses  will  cause  death. 
Even  a  moderate  dose  taken  just  after  a  meal  may  com- 
pletely arrest  digestion.  The  use  of  opium  often  follows 
the  prolonged  use  of  alcoholic  beverages,  for  it  quiets 
the  pain  and  restlessness  of  the  diseased  body,  and  it 
dulls  the  intellect  so  that  the  sufferings  of  remorse  are 
not  so  keen. 

Tea  and  Coffee.  Both  tea  and  coffee  are  likely  to 
interfere  with  the  action  of  the  stomach,  especially  it 
taken  strong  and  in  large  quantities 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  Name  the  parts  surrounding  the  stomach. 

2.  Where  is  the  pylorus,  and  what  is  its  object  ? 

3.  Describe  the  glands  in  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach. 

4.  Describe  the  gastric  juice. 

5.  What  is  the  chief  characteristic  of  this  juice  ? 

6.  What  other  juice  has  the  same  power  ? 

7.  What  is  the  action  of  the  gastric  juice  on  lean  meat?  white 
of  egg?  bread?  fatty  foods?  milk? 

8.  What  is  the  object  of  the  movements  of  the  stomach? 

9.  Give  some  of  the  conditions  affecting  digestion. 

10.  Name  some  foods  easy  of  digestion ;  some  more  difficult. 

11.  Give  the  location  of  the  liver. 

12.  What  does  the  liver  secrete  ? 

13.  How  does  this  secretion  reach  the  intestine? 

14.  What  is  said  about  the  liver  sugar? 

15.  Give  the  effect  of  pancreatic  juice  on  the  various  foods. 


84  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

ABSORPTION. 

Definition  of  Absorption.  It  has  been  stated  in  a  pre- 
vious chapter  that  the  saliva  and  pancreatic  juice 
change  the  insoluble  starchy  foods  into  the  soluble 
glucose,  or  grape  sugar ;  that  the  lean  meats,  eggs, 
and  other  albuminous  foods  are  digested  by  the  gastric 
juice ;  and  that  the  fats  are  changed  by  the  pancre- 
atic juice.  If  our  foods  could  be  absorbed  in  their 
natural  state,  this  complicated  work  of  digestion  would 
be  unnecessary.  But  we  know  that  the  foods  must  first 
be  liquefied  and  changed,  before  they  can  be  taken  up 
by  the  proper  vessels,  and  carried  to  the  various  parts  of 
the  body. 

Absorption,  therefore,  is  the  process  by  which  the 
digested  food  passes  from  the  alimentary  canal  into  the 
blood  vessels  and  lymph  vessels. 

Absorption  from  the  Stomach.  The  water  that  is  taken 
as  drink,  and  also  that  found  in  the  food,  is  largely 
absorbed  by  the  blood  vessels  of  the  stomach.  Such 
mineral  salts  as  are  soluble  in  water  are  here  absorbed  ; 
as  are  also  the  various  alcoholic  solutions.  There  is  a 
slight  absorption  of  the  foods,  as  they  are  digested  in 


ABSORPTION.  85 

the  stomach.  Generally  speaking,  however,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  various  drinks,  both  simple  and  alcoholic, 
there  is  little  absorption  by  the  blood  vessels  of  the 
stomach.  The  digested  foods  are  principally  absorbed 
in  the  small  intestine. 

Structure  of  the  Small  Intestine.  The  outer  walls  of  the 
small  intestine  are  composed  of  involuntary  muscle 
which  is  directly  continuous  with  that  forming  the  walls 
of  the  stomach.  Within  this  muscular  wall,  and  at- 
tached to  it,  is  a  mucous  membrane  which  lines  the 
whole  of  the  small  intestine.  This  mucous  membrane 
is  arranged  in  folds,  or  plaits,  which  pass  around  and 
transversely  to  the  canal.  Some  of  the  folds  are  nearly 
two  thirds  of  an  inch  in  depth  at  their  broadest  part, 
though  most  of  them  are  smaller.  These  folds  retard 
the  passage  of  food  along  the  intestine,  and  also  in- 
crease the  surface  for  absorption.  Projecting  from 
these  folds,  and  covering  their  inner  surface  are  very 
minute  elevations,  called  villi.  They  are  from  -^  to  ^ 
of  an  inch  in  length  and  they  hang  down  toward  the 
center  of  the  canal  like  so  many  minute  fingers.  They 
give  to  the  mucous  membrane  its  velvety  appearance. 
It  is  estimated  that  there  are  fifteen  or  twenty  million 
of  these  villi  in  the  small  intestine. 

Fig.  21  illustrates  the  general  arrangement  of  the 
various  parts  as  seen  in  a  cross  section  of  the  small  in- 
testine. The  outer  wall  is  thick  and  firm,  composed  of 
strong  muscular  tissue.  Within  this  are  represented 
the  villi,  hanging  down  toward  the  center  of  the  canal. 
Two  kinds  of  vessels  are  illustrated  in  the  drawing,  — 
the  blood  vessels  and  the  lymph  vessels  ;  the  latter 
are  also  known  as  the  lymphatics,  or  the  lacteals. 


$Q  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

A  careful  study  of  one  of  these  villi  is  necessary  for 
a  clear  understanding  of  the  subject  of  absorption. 
At  Fig.  20  is  a  single  villus,  highly  magnified.  Each 
of  those  represented  in  Fig.  21  would  appear  the  same 
under  an  equally  high  magnifying  power ;  in  fact,  this 
single  villus  may  be  taken  as  a  representative-  of  the 


FIG.  20.  A  villus  of  the  small  intestine,  magnified:  (1)  central  lym- 
phatic ;  (2)  blood  vessels. 

FIG.  21.  Diagram  of  a  cross  section  of  the  small  intestine  :  (1)  lacteal, 
or  lymphatic  vessels  ;  (2)  blood  vessels. 

twenty  million  found  in  the  body.  Each  villus  is  sur- 
rounded with  a  layer  of  minute  cells.  Directly  in  the 
center,  1,  is  a  darkly  shaded  vessel ;  this  is  the  lacteal, 
or  lymphatic  vessel.  It  begins  at  the  free  end  of  the 
villus  and  unites  with  the  lacteals  from  the  other  villi, 
as  clearly  seen  in  Fig.  21.  Surrounding  the  central 
lymphatic  are  numerous  capillary  blood  vessels.  A 
reference  to  Fig.  21  shows  that  the  capillaries  from 
several  villi  unite  to  make  the  larger  blood  vessels,  at  2. 
The  villi,  therefore,  are  found  to  consist  of  two  kinds 


PLATE    II. 


ABSORPTION.  87 

of  vessels,  surrounded  with  a  layer  of  cells.  Plate  II. 
gives  an  idea  of  the  vast  network  of  blood  vessels  found 
in  each  villus.  No  pen  can  either  picture  or  describe 
this  most  beautiful  and  most  complicated  arrangement 
of  vessels. 

Absorption  from  the  Small  Intestine.  No  better  illus- 
tration could  be  given  of  the  value  of  the  microscopical 
study  of  the  tissues,  as  an  aid  to  the  study  of  physiology, 
than  the  case  before  us.  It  is  now  easy  to  understand 
how  the  digested  food  can  pass  from  the  intestinal  canal 
to  the  blood  vessels  and  lymphatics.  The  digested  foods 
can  easily  pass  through  the  thin  layer  of  cells  surround- 
ing the  villi,  and  through  the  thin  walls  of  the  vessels 
within.  The  only  question  to  be  decided  is  what  kind  of 
food  each  system  of  vessels  absorbs. 

The  central  lymphatics,  or  lacteals,  of  the  villi  are 
especially  concerned  in  the  absorption  of  the  digested 
fatty  foods.  The  blood  vessels  of  the  villi  absorb  the 
other  digested  foods,  as  the  glucose  and  the  albuminous 
foods.  This  is  the  general  rule,  although  it  is  a  fact 
that  each  system  of  vessels  may  absorb  all  kinds  of 
digested  food.  Water  and  many  watery  solutions  are 
freely  absorbed  while  in  the  small  intestine. 

The  Portal  Vein,  The  blood  vessels  of  the  villi  unite 
with  other  blood  vessels  from  the  stomach  to  make  a 
large  vein,  called  the  portal  vein.  This  vein  goes  di- 
rectly from  the  stomach  and  intestine  to  the  liver.  It 
carries  the  digested  foods,  taken  up  by  the  blood  vessels, 
at  once  to  the  liver.  At  the  proper  time  this  food  will 
pass  from  the  liver,  through  certain  veins,  directly  to  the 
heart.  From  this  central  point  it  is  soon  sent  out  to  all 
parts  of  the  body. 


88  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

The  Lymphatics.  The  lymphatics  of  the  body  consist 
of  the  lymphatic  glands  and  the  lymphatic  vessels.  The 
lymphatics  found  in  the  villi  are  often  called  the  lac- 
teals,  because  here,  when  rilled  with  the  chyle  or  di- 
gested fats,  they  look  white ;  hence  lacteal,  from  the 
Latin  word  lac,  milk. 

The  lymphatic  vessels  are  found  in  nearly  every  organ 
and  tissue  in  the  body.  They  contain  a  clear,  colorless 
fluid,  called  the  lymph.  The  general  object  of  the  lym- 
phatics is  to  collect  the  fluid  that  is  in  the  tissues  of  the 
body  and  carry  it  back  to  the  blood.  The  blood  brings 
nourishment  to  the  tissues  ;  this  nourishment  is  in  the 
form  of  a  watery  fluid  which  passes  through  the  walls  of 
the  blood  vessels  and  penetrates  between  the  fibers  and 
cells  of  the  tissues.  From  this  fluid  the  tissues  take 
such  ingredients  as  they  need  for  their  nourishment  and 
growth.  The  fluid,  therefore,  soon  has  its  very  life,  its 
most  nourishing  ingredients,  taken  from  it  by  the  tissues ; 
nothing  is  left  of  it  but  useless  material.  At  the  same 
time  that  the  tissues  are  taking  up  nourishment,  they 
are  also  throwing  off  worn-out  material ;  this  forms  part 
of  the  fluid  that  is  in  the  tissues.  As  already  stated, 
the  lymphatics  gather  up  this  fluid,  so  that,  eventually, 
its  harmful  ingredients  may  be  cast  out  of  the  body. 

All  along  the  course  of  the  lymphatic  vessels  are  mi- 
nute glands,  called  the  lymphatic  glands.  The  lym- 
phatic glands  of  the  neck  sometimes  get  inflamed  and 
swollen  so  that  they  can  be  felt  beneath  the  skin  as 
minute  kernels. 

The  Lymph.  After  a  meal  containing  fatty  foods,  the 
lymph  in  the  thoracic  duct  changes  from  a  clear,  watery 
fluid  to  a  milk-white  color.  This  is  due  to  the  fact 


ABSORPTION.  89 

that  the  lymphatics  of  the  villi  take  up  the  digested  fats, 
or  chyle,  and  carry  them  directly  to  the  thoracic  duct. 
As  the  digested  fats  are  of  a  milky  color,  so  the  contents 
of  the  thoracic  duct  become  of  a  like  color ;  this  only 
lasts,  however,  while  the  chyle  is  being  absorbed.  All 
the  other  lymphatics  are  constantly  filled  with  the  color- 
less lymph.  As  it  is  the  business  of  the  lymphatics  to 
collect  a  liquid  which  is  in  the  tissues  and  carry  it 
eventually  to  the  heart,  so  it  follows  that  the  flow  of 
lymph  is  always  from  the  periphery  toward  the  heart, 
being  in  this  particular  like  the  venous  blood. 

As  the  lymph  flows  through  the  lymphatic  glands  on 
its  way  to  the  heart,  it  meets  with  some  changes,  chiefly 
in  the  addition  of  the  lymph  corpuscles.  These  are 
minute  bodies  identical  with  the  white  corpuscles  of  the 
blood.  In  fact,  they  become  the  white  corpuscles  as 
soon  as  they  are  brought  to  the  blood  by  the  lymphatic 
vessels. 

The  Thoracic  Duct.  Directly  in  front  of  the  spina^ 
column  lies  the  thoracic  duct.  It  is  from  eighteen  to 
twenty  inches  in  length,  in  the  adult,  and  is  about  the 
size  of  an  ordinary  slate  pencil.  This  duct  carries  the 
greater  part  of  all  the  lymph  and  chyle  into  the  blood ; 
while  it  is  the  central,  large  vessel  for  all  the  lymphatics 
of  the  body.  There  are  numerous  valves  throughout  its 
entire  length,  so  arranged  that  they  completely  prevent 
the  lymph  and  chyle  from  falling  towards  its  lower  part. 
The  duct  begins  in  the  lower  part  of  the  abdominal  cavity 
by  a  triangular  enlargement,  and  then  passes  up  through 
the  diaphragm.  When  near  the  heart,  it  makes  a  sharp 
curve  and  empties  into  a  large  vein,  beneath  the  left 
collar  bone.  This  vein  carries  the  lymph  directly  to 


90  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

the  right  side  of  tli3  heart.     Thus  the  lymph  enters  the 
general  circulation. 

The  lymph  from  the  upper  part  of  the  right  side  of 
the  hody  reaches  the  circulation  through  another  lym- 
phatic duct  of  small  size.  It  empties  into  a  correspond- 
ing vein  beneath  the  right  collar  bone. 

Colored  Plate.  A  study  of  Plate  111.  will  aid  in  under- 
standing the  relation  of  certain  parts  to  each  other : 
(1)  the  beginning  of  the  thoracic  duct ;  (2)  the  termi- 
nation of  the  duct  in  the  large  vein,  near  the  heart ; 
(3)  the  right  lymphatic  duct;  (4)  the  spinal  column; 
(5)  the  large  vein  which  empties  into  the  right  auricle,  — 
it  corresponds  to  2,  figures  30  and  31 ;  (6)  the  aorta ; 
(7)  the  artery  which  carries  blood  to  the  right  side  of 
the  head;  (8)  to  the  left  side;  (9)  arteries  supplying 
the  organs  and  also  the  tissues  of  the  abdominal  cavity ; 
they  are  also  represented  in  Fig,  36. 
•  Review.  From  what  has  been  said  it  now  becomes 
possible  to  trace  the  foods  from  the  time  they  are 
taken  into  the  mouth  until  they  enter  the  blood.  Take 
the  three  representative  foods  :  lean  meat,  starch, 
and  fat :  — 

First,  mastication,  or  chewing;  second,  insalivation, 
or  mixing  with  the  saliva  ;  third,  deglutition,  or  swallow- 
ing ;  fourth,  stomach  digestion,  for  the  albuminous 
foods ;  fifth,  intestinal  digestion,  for  the  fatty  and 
starchy  foods;  sixth,  absorption,  seventh,  albuminous 
foods  and  glucose  carried  to  the  liver  by  blood  vessels ; 
eighth,  fatty  foods,  the  chyle,  carried  to  the  blood  by 
the  lacteals. 

A  study  of  Fig.  22  will  aid  the  memory  in  fixing  the 
facts  already  stated.  Begin  with  the  four  villi  at  the 


PLATE    III. 


ABSORPTION. 


91 


right  of  the  intes- 
tine :  suppose  the 
central  lacteals  are 
filled  with  chyle, 
or  digested  fats. 
The  four  lacteals 
unite  to  form  a  lar- 
ger vessel,  L,  which 
passes  through  a 
lymphatic  gland, 
G,  and  empties 
into  the  dilated  be- 
ginning of  the  tho- 
racic duct,  D.  The 
chyle  then  passes 
up  the  duct  in  the 
direction  of  the 
arrowheads,  until 
it  enters  the  large 
vein  which  leads 
directly  to  the  right 
side  of  the  heart. 
Consult  also  the 
colored  plate. 

Suppose  again 
that  the  blood  ves- 
sels of  the  villi  at 
the  left,  2,  are  filled 
with  absorbed 
foods  derived  from 
the  lean  meats  and 
starches.  The  ves- 


FIG.  22.  Diagram  illustrating  the  course 
of  the  absorbed  foods.  I,  intestine  :  (1)  villi 
with  central  lacteals  ;  (2)  villi  with  blood  vesv 
sels.  L,  lymphatic  or  lacteal  vessels.  G,  lym-. 
phatic  gland.  D,  thoracic  duct.  P,  portal 
vein.  L,  liver,  at  the  left  of  the  figure, 
v,  vein.  H,  heart.  A,  right  auricle  of  heart. 


92  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

sels  soon  unite  to  form  the  portal  vein,  P,  which  carries 
the  food  directly  to  the  liver,  L.  From  the  liver  it  can 
pass  through  the  veins,  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow- 
heads, to  the  right  side  of  the  heart. 

Fig.  22  is  a  diagram  to  illustrate  the  course  pursued 
by  the  digested  foods,  from  the  intestinal  canal  to  the 
heart ;  while  the  colored  plate  is  a  correct  representa- 
tion of  the  relation  of  the  various  parts. 

f 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  Give  a  definition  of  absorption. 

2.  What  food  is  largely  absorbed  while  in  the  stomach  ? 

3.  Is  much  of  the  food  absorbed  while  in  the  stomach  ? 

4.  Where  does  absorption  principally  take  place? 

5.  What  composes  the  outer  walls  of  the  small  intestine  ? 

6.  What  is  within  this  wall  ? 

7.  How  is  this  membrane  arranged  ? 

8.  What  is  the  object  of  these  folds  ? 

9.  What  projects  from  these  folds  ? 

10.  Describe  a  single  villus. 

11.  What  is  said  of  the  number  of  these  villi? 

12.  What  foods  are  principally  absorbed  by  the  lacteals?    By  the 
blood  vessels  ? 

13.  Where  is  the  portal  vein  ? 

14.  Why  are  the  lymphatics  of  the  villi  often  called  lacteals? 

15.  What  is  the  principal  object  of  the  lymphatics? 

16.  What  minute  bodies  are  found  in  lymph? 

1 7.  These  corpuscles  become  what  ? 

1 8.  Describe  the  thoracic  duct. 

19.  Of  what  use  are  its  valves  ? 

20.  Describe  the  course  of  the  digested  fats  from  the  intestine  to 
the  heart.     Also  the  course  of  the  digested  lean  meats. 


THE  BLOOD.  93 


CHAPTER   X. 

THE   BLOOD. 

General  Description.  The  blood  is  often  called  the 
vital  fluid,  because  it  affords  life  to  all  the  tissues.  A 
sudden  loss  of  much  blood  causes  great  weakness,  while 
if  the  amount  lost  be  considerable,  death  may  result. 
The  more  rapid  the  loss  of  blood,  the  more  dangerous 
it  is  ;  while  if  the  amount  be  moderate  and  the  bleeding 
slow,  the  loss  is  better  borne  and  sooner  made  up. 

In  a  few  cases  human  lives  have  been  saved,  after 
great  losses  of  blood,  by  having  fresh  blood  from  a 
person  or  animal  injected  into  the  veins.  This  is  called 
the  transfusion  of  blood.  Three  or  four  ounces  only  are 
injected,  and  a  few  cases  are  on  record  where  this  small 
amount  was  sufficient  to  restore  health  to  persons  who 
were  very  near  death.  Many  years  ago  a  few  remark- 
able cases  of  recovery  made  some  people  believe  that  the 
transfusion  of  the  blood  of  young  persons  into  the  veins 
of  the  aged  would  bring  back  youth  and  vigor  to  the  lat- 
ter. But  a  number  of  deaths  resulted  from  this  being 
improperly  done,  and  in  some  countries  the  operation 
was  forbidden  by  law.  It  is  rarely  employed  at  the 
present  time. 


94  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

Although  the  blood  is  very  generally  distributed 
through  the  body,  yet  there  are  parts  in  which  it  is  not 
found,  as  the  hard  parts  of  the  teeth,  the  hair,  the  nails, 
th.e  outer  layer  of  the  skin,  some  parts  of  the  eye,  and 
most  of  the  cartilages.  These  are  nourished  by  absorb- 
ing the  fluids  which  escape  from  neighboring  blood  ves- 
sels. It  is  estimated  that  about  one  twelfth  of  the 
weight  of  the  body  is  composed  of  blood. 

Medium  of  Exchange,  The  blood  receives  a  large 
amount  of  new  material  from  the  digested  food,  and  a 
supply  of  oxygen  from  the  air  in  the  lungs.  It  carries 
these  fresh  supplies  to  the  various  organs  and  tissues ; 
gives  them  up  where  they  are  needed  ;  and  receives  in 
exchange,  carbonic  acid  and  other  products  of  waste. 
From  this  it  is  seen  that  the  blood  always  contains  both 
new  and  old  material ;  new  material  on  it's  way  to  build 
up  tissue,  and  old  material  on  its  way  to  the  kidneys, 
the  lungs,  and  the  skin.  The  blood  brings  useful  ma- 
terial and  takes  away  useless  material.  It  is  a  great 
medium  of  exchange  between  the  outside  world  and  the 
tissues  of  the  body. 

Composition  of  the  Blood.  Blood  appears  to  the  un- 
aided sight  as  a  thick,  opaque,  red  fluid.  But  the 
microscope,  shows  that  it  consists  of  two  parts  :  a  trans- 
parent, nearly  colorless  fluid,  called  the  plasma ;  and  a 
large  number  of  minute  bodies  floating  in  the  plasma, 
called  the  blood  corpuscles.  The  plasma  looks  very 
much  like  water,  yet  it  holds  in  solution  many  impor- 
tant substances. 

The  Blood  Corpuscles.  The  blood  corpuscles  are  of  two 
kinds,  the  white  and  the  red.  The  white  corpuscles,  as 
their  name  indicates,  are  without  color.  They  are  spher- 


THE  BLOOD. 


95 


ical  bodies,  averaging  about  g-gVff  °f  an  mcn  ^n  diame- 
ter. They  are  a  trifle  larger  than  the  red  corpuscles, 
but  not  so  abundant,  the  average  number  being  one  white 
corpuscle  to  about  three  hundred  red,  although  this  is 
subject  to  variation  even  in  health.  The  white  corpus- 
cles are  capable  of  changing  their  form  by  a  flow  of 
their  substance  in  various  directions.  This  is  after  the 
manner  of  the  amoeba,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  2  ;  hence 
the  changes  in  their  shape  are  called  the  "  amoeboid 
movements."  The  white  corpuscles  are  identical  with 
the  lymph  corpuscles.  When,  in  cases  of  illness,  the 
person  becomes  weak  and  pale,  there  is  generally  an 
increase  in  the  number  of  the  white  corpuscles,  and  a 
decrease  of  the  red. 

The  red  corpuscles  of  human  blood  are  circular  bodies, 

FIG.    24. 


FIG.  23.  Human  cblood,  highly  magnified  :  (A)  the  v/hite  corpuscles  ; 
(B)  the  red  corpuscles. 

FIG.  24.  Human  blood,  more  highly  magnified :  (a)  the  red  cor- 
puscles ;  (6)  a  white  corpuscle. 

slightly  hollowed  towards  the  center.  Fig.  23  shows  a 
number  of  these  bodies,  shaded  in  the  center  to  give 
the  correct  impression  that  they  are  concave.  One  cor- 
puscle, at  the  left  of  the  figure,  is  seen  on  the  edge, 


96  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 

showing  that  it  is  biconcave,  or  slightly  hollowed  on 
either  side.  The  red  corpuscles  exist  in  vast  numbers. 
It  is  estimated  that  in  a  minute  drop  of  blood  there  are 
over  five  millions  of  them  ;  while  in  a  medium-sized 
person  there  are  not  less  than  twenty-five  billions, 
—  too  vast  a  number  for  the  mind  to  comprehend. 
Fig.  24  represents  a  few  red  corpuscles  and  one  white 
corpuscle,  very  highly  magnified.  Four  red  corpuscles 
are  seen  resting  on  the  side,  while  four  are  on  the 
edge. 

Function  of  the  Red  Corpuscles.  The  most  important 
ingredient  of  the  red  corpuscles  is  their  coloring  matter, 
called  haemoglobin.  This  substance  has  a  strong  lik- 
ing, an  "  affinity,"  for  oxygen.  So  strong  is  this  affinity 
that  when  the  blood  flows  through  the  lungs  the  color- 
ing matter  takes  oxygen  from  the  air  which  it  finds 
there.  The  red  corpuscles  thus  become  loaded  with 
oxygen.  The  blood  soon  leaves  the  lungs,  and  flows 
to  the  most  distant  tissues,  which  are  in  great  need  of 
this  oxygen.  But  the  tissues  exert  a  stronger  affinity 
for  the  oxygen  than  even  the  hemoglobin,  and  thus  the 
latter  is  obliged  to  give  up  the  oxygen.  For  this  reason 
the  red  corpuscles  are  called  the  oxygen-carriers ;  for 
their  great  object  is  to  carry  oxygen  from  the  lungs  to 
all  the  various  organs  and  tissues  of  the  body. 

Arterial  and  Venous  Blood.  As  soon  as  the  red  cor- 
puscles receive  their  fresh  supply  of  oxygen  in  the  lungs 
they  become  bright  red  in  color,  making  the  whole 
blood  a  bright  scarlet.  This  bright-colored  blood  is 
called  arterial  blood.  It  is  found  in  the  arteries,  or  in 
those  vessels  which  cnrry  blood  from  the  heart  to  the 
distant  tissues.  In  one  place  arterial  blood  is  found  in 


THE  BLOOD.  97 

the   veins,  —  the   pulmonary  veins,  —  which    carry  the 
blood  from  the  lungs  to  the  left  side  of  the  heart. 

When  the  blood  is  passing  through  the  smallest  ves- 
sels, the  capillaries,  it  gives  up  its  oxygen  to  the  tissues. 
Deprived  of  its  oxygen,  the  haemoglobin  of  the  red  cor- 
puscles becomes  much  darker  in  color,  therefore  the 
whole  blood  looks  darker.  This  darker- colored  blood 
is  called  venous  blood.  It  is  found  in  all  the  blood 
vessels  which  carry  the  blood  from  the  tissues  back  to 
the  heart.  It  is  also  found  in  one  artery,  —  the  pulmo- 
nary artery,  —  which  carries  the  blood  from  the  right 
side  of  the  heart  to  the  lungs.  The  rule  is  that  the 
arteries  contain  the  bright  arterial  blood,  and  the  veins 
the  dark  venous  blood ;  but  to  this  there  are  the  two 
exceptions  already  given,  the  pulmonary  artery  and  tlf 
pulmonary  veins. 

Oxygen  and  Carbonic  Acid.  The  air  we  breathe  con- 
sists principally  of  two  gases,  —  oxygen  and  nitrogen. 
The  oxygen  is  essential  to  all  life.  Without  it  we  should 
soon  die.  All  parts  of  the  body  use  it.  The  tissues  are 
constantly  demanding  it  and  countless  numbers  of  cor- 
puscles are  continuously  and  rapidly  at  work  distribut- 
ing it  throughout  the  body.  We  know  that  a  substance 
called  carbon  forms  a  part  of  all  the  tissues.  When  the 
oxygen  reaches  the  tissues,  it  unites  with  their  carbon, 
forming  carbonic  acid.  This  is  a  poisonous  gas,  and  the 
body  must  cast  it  off  as  soon  as  possible ;  therefore  it 
mingles  with  the  plasma  of  the  blood  and  is  soon  carried 
to  the  lungs,  where  it  escapes  from  the  body. 

Arterial  and  Venous  Blood  Compared.  From  what  has 
been  said  we  are  able  to  place  in  a  more  concise  form 
the  differences  between  arterial  and  venous  blood  :  — 


98  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

Arterial  blood  contains  the  more  oxygen. 

Venous  blood  contains  the  more  carbonic  acid. 

Arterial  blood  is  of  a  bright  scarlet  color. 

Venous  blood  is  of  a  darker,  nearly  purple  color. 

Arterial  blood-  parts  with  its  oxygen  in  the  capillaries. 

Venous  blood  parts  with  its  carbonic  acid  in  the 
I  lings. 

Arterial  blood  contains  substances  for  the  nutrition  of 
the  tissues. 

Venous  blood  contains  the  worn-out  materials  from 
the  tissues. 

Coagulation.  Soon  after  blood  has  escaped  from  a 
blood  vessel,  it  thickens  to  a  jelly-like  mass.  This  is 
called  the  coagulation  or  clotting  of  blood.  It  is  one  of 
the  wise  provisions  of  nature,  so  that  our  lives  may  not 
be  sacrificed  as  a  result  of  some  slight  cut  or  wound. 
The  lower  animals  are  often  severely  bruised  and 
wounded,  and  they  may  even  lose  a  portion  of  a  limb, 
laying  bare  large  blood  vessels,  without  fatal  results. 
This  is  because  the  blood  soon  clots,  forming  a  solid 
mass  at  the  openings  of  the  vessels  and  preventing  any 
further  escape  of  blood.  Whenever  any  vessel  of  consid- 
erable size  is  ruptured,  it  is  advisable  to  aid  nature  by 
checking  the  flow  of  blood  for  a  short  time,  in  order  that 
the  clot  may  be  well  formed.  This  is  accomplished  by 
pressing  on  the  part,  or  by  placing  a  fine  thread  around 
the  ends  of  the  ruptured  vessel. 

Blood  seldom  clots  while  in  the  blood  vessels  of  the 
living  body.  It  never  does  so  unless  some  disease  or 
some  unusual  condition  be  present.  As  a  result  of  a 
diseased  condition  of  the  walls  of  the  blood  vessels, 
sometimes  a  vessel  in  the  brain  breaks,  and  a  small 


THE   BLOOD. 


99 


amount  of  blood  escapes  into  the  brain  substance,  where 
it  clots.  This  often  produces  unconsciousness  and  par- 
alysis, and  may  terminate  in  death.  If  the  amount 
of  blood  thus  set  free  be  large  enough,  or  if  it  be  in 
the  most  vital  parts  of  the  brain,  it  may  cause  instant 
death.  This  bursting  of  a  blood  vessel  and  consequent 
pressure  on  the  brain  causes  the  disease  known  as 
apoplexy. 

The  clotting  of  the  blood  is  due  to  the  change  of 
some  of  its  liquid  elements  into  a  substance  called 
fibrin.  Fibrin  consists  of  innumerable  delicate  fibrils, 
so  minute  that  they  are  seen  only  with  the  higher 


FIG.    25. 


FIG.   26. 


FIG.  25.  A  bowl  of  recently  coagulated  blood  ;  the  clot  is  of  uniform 
density. 

FIG.  26.  The  same  bowl  of  blood,  a  few  hours  later ;  the  clot  is  con- 
tracted and  floats  in  the  liquid  serum. 

powers  of  the  microscope.  The  fibrils  are  like  so  many 
minute  threads,  which  entangle  the  blood  corpuscles 
and  form  with  them  a  soft,  semi-fluid  mass.  In  a  few  mo- 
ments after  blood  has  been  exposed  to  the  air,  it  begins 
to  change  to  a  jelly-like  mass.  Still  later  the  mass 


100 


THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 


begins  to  contract,  while  there  escapes  from  it  a  clear 
fluid,  called  the  serum.  Later  on  the  central  mass 
becomes  quite  hard,  so  that  it  may  be  cut  with  a 
knife.  This  central  hard  mass  is  known  as  the  clot, 
and  consists  of  the  fibrin  and  the  corpuscles ;  while 
the  serum  represents  the  other  constituents  of  the 
blood. 

The  Blood  of  the  Lower  Animals,  In  many  animals 
the  red  corpuscles  are  of  the  same  shape  as  in  man. 
With  the  one  single  exception,  the  camelidae,  this  is  true 
of  all  the  mammalia,  —  as  the  horse,  sheep,  ox,  hog, 
and  dog.  While  the  red  corpuscles  of  these  animals  are 
of  the  same  shape,  yet  many  of  them  differ  in  size.  In 
many  of  these  animals  the  red  corpuscles  are  so  much 
smaller  than  those  in  man  that  it  is  sometimes  possible 
to  tell  whether  the  corpuscles  found  in  a  blood  stain  are 
those  of  man  or  of  some  lower 
animal.  To  determine  this  re- 
quires the  very  highest  powers 
of  the  microscope,  very  delicate 
measuring  instruments,  and  also 
great  skill  in  their  use.  It  is  not 
always  possible  to  tell  human 
blood  from  the  blood  of  other 
mammalia,  but  it  is  possible  to  do 
so  in  certain  cases. 

Many  of  the  lower  animals  have 
red  corpuscles  of  different  shape 
from  those  of  man.  They  are 
also  larger  and  of  different  structure.  The  red  cor- 
puscles of  the  blood  of  birds,  fishes,  reptiles,  frogs,  and 
toads  are  oval  in  shape,  and  much  larger  than  those  of 


FIG.  27.  Frog's  blood, 
highly  magnified  :  (A)  the 
white  corpuscles  ;  (B)  the 
nucleated,  oval,  red,  cor- 
puscles. 


THE   BLOOD. 


0 
i 


man.  It  is  comparatively  easy  to  tell  these  corpuscles 
from  the  circular  ones,  as  a  glance  at  Figs.  23  and  27  will 
show. 

Advantage  is  often  taken  of  these  facts,  when  great 
crimes  have  been  com-  ^ 

mitted,  in  order  to  de- 
termine whether  a  blood 
stain  was  caused  by  hu- 
man blood  or  by  the 
blood  of  one  of  the  lower 
animals.  Thus  a  knowl- 
edge of  histology  and  the 
use  of  the  microscope 
often  aids  in  detecting 
crime  and  bringing  the 
guilty  to  punishment. 

Fig.  28  illustrates 
what  has  been  said. 
The  red  corpuscles  from 
thirteen  different  ani- 
mals are  illustrated, 
showing  their  relative 
sizes.  Six  are  from  the 
mammalia,  showing  a 
difference  in  size  but 
not  in  shape ;  they  are 
therefore  easily  told 
from  the  others  which 
are  oval.  The  first  six 
have  no  nuclei,  while 
the  nucleus  shows 
prominently  in  each  of  the  others. 


FIG.  28.  Showing  the  relative  size  of 
red  blood  corpuscles  of  different  animals : 
(1)  musk  deer;  (2)  horse  ;  (3)  mouse; 
(4)  man  ;  (5)  whale  ;  (6)  elephant  ; 
(7)  humming  bird  ;  (8)  pheasant ; 
(9)  pigeon  ;  (10)  snake  ;  (11)  crocodile; 
(12)  triton  ;  (13)  proteus. 


102  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

ALCOHOL    AND    THE    BLOOD. 

It  is  the  testimony  of  eminent  surgeons  that  wounds 
do  not  heal  so  well  on  those  who  use  alcoholic  drinks. 
The  continued  use  of  alcoholic  beverages  results  in  such 
changes  in  the  blood  that  the  fibrin  is  not  so  easily 
formed  ;  and  as  the  formation  of  fibrin  is  necessary  for 
the  coagulation  of  the  blood,  it  follows  that  bleeding  is 
not  so  easily  checked.  Therefore  surgical  operations  are 
not  so  successful  when  performed  on  those  whose  sys- 
tems have  been  weakened  by  the  long  use  of  alcoholic 
irinks. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  said  about  the  loss  of  blood  causing  weakness  and 
death  ? 

2.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  transfusion  of  blood? 

3.  Name  some  parts  in  which  blood  is  not  found. 

4.  Explain  why  the  blood  is  a  medium  of  exchange. 

5.  What  is  the  composition  of  the  blood  ? 

6.  How  many  kinds  of  blood  corpuscles  are  there? 

7.  Describe  the  white  corpuscles. 

8.  Describe  the  red  corpuscles. 

9.  Explain  the  function  of  the  red  corpuscles. 

10.  Where  is  arterial  blood  found?    Venous  blood? 

1 1 .  How  necessary  is  oxygen  to  the  body  ? 

12.  How  is  carbonic  acid  formed  in  the  body? 

13.  Give  some  of  the  differences  between  arterial  and  venous  bloodi 

14.  Describe  the  clotting  of  blood.     What  causes  it? 

15.  Of  what  does  the  clot  consist?     The  serum  ? 

16.  What  animals  have  red  corpuscles  of  the  same  shape  as  in  man  ? 

17.  What  animals  have  red  corpuscles  of  different-  shape   from 
those  of  man  ? 

18.  In  what  way  does  alcohol  affect  the  blood? 


THE   CIRCULATION.  1Q3 


CHAPTER  XL 

THE   CIRCULATION. 

The  Circulatory  Apparatus.  We  have  learned  that  the 
blood  is  a  great  circulating  medium  by  which  nourishing 
material  is  carried  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  and  other 
material  brought  to  organs  and  tissues  to  be  cast  out  as 
of  no  further  use.  To  bring  this  about  there  are  four 
different  parts  to  the  circulatory  apparatus,  —  the  heart, 
the  arteries,  the  capillaries,  and  the  veins. 

The  Heart,  The  heart  is  situated  in  the  thoracic 
cavity,  between  the  lungs.  It  is  completely  surrounded 
by  a  sac  or  membranous  bag,  called  the  pericardium,  the 
lower  part  of  which  rests  on  the  diaphragm.  This  sac 
also  encloses  about  two  inches  of  the  large  blood  vessels 
at  the  base  of  the  heart.  The  cells  which  cover  the 
inside  of  the  pericardium  secrete  a  watery  fluid  which 
keeps  its  inner  lining  very  smooth  and  enables  the  heart 
to  move  against  it  without  friction.  The  heart  itself  is 
a  large,  hollow  muscle,  weighing  from  ten  to  twelve 
ounces,  and  measuring  about  five  inches  in  length. 

The  heart  is  placed  obliquely  in  the  chest.  It  is  con- 
ical in  shape,  with  the  apex  of  the  cone  pointing  down- 
ward, forward,  and  to  the  left.  The  location  of  the 


104 


THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 


apex  can  be  easily  determined  by  placing  the  hand  over, 
the  left  side,  and  feeling  the  strokes  against  the  walls  of 
the  chest.  The  upper  end  or  base  of  the  heart  is  on  a 
level  with  the  cartilage  of  the  third  rib. 

A  reference  to  Fig. 
29  shows  that  the 
heart  is  not  all  on  the 
left  side  of  the  body. 
It  extends  about 
three  inches  to  the 
left  of  the  median  line, 
and  an  inch  and  a  naif 
to  the  right  of  it.  The 
apex  of  the  heart  is 
well  over  in  the  left 
side,  and  as  low  down 
as  between  the  fifth 
and  sixth  ribs.  The 
apex  has  considerable  freedom  of  motion,  while  the  base 
has  but  little  motion. 

The  Cavities  of  the  Heart.  The  heart  is  divided  length- 
wise-by  a  firm  muscular  wall.  There  is  no  connection 
whatever  between  the  two  parts  thus  formed ;  one  side 
always  containing  arterial  blood,  and  the  other  side  ven- 
ous blood.  Each  side  of  the  heart  is  again  divided  by  a 
wall,  which,  in  this  case,  is  not  complete ;  an  opening 
is  left  so  that  blood  freely  passes  from  one  part  to  the 
other.  This  opening  is  protected  by  valves  which  allow 
the  blood  to  pass  only  in  one  direction.  There  are, 
therefore,  four  compartments  or  cavities  in  the  heart. 
The  two  upper  cavities  are  called  the  auricles,  from 
their  fancied  resemblance  to  ears ;  while  the  two  lower 


FIG.  29.    The  position  of  the  heart. 


PLATE    IV. 


THE   CIRCULATION. 


105 


cavities  are  called  the  ventricles.  Each  side  of  the 
heart,  therefore,  consists  of  an  auricle  above  and  a  ven- 
tricle below.  The  ventricles  have  no  communication 
with  each  other,  neither  have  the  auricles ;  but  each 
auricle  has  an  opening  into  its  own  ventricle,  protected 
by  valves.  All  these  cavities  are  lined  by  a  very  smooth 
membrane.  The  col- 
ored plate  is  drawn  from 
the  same  specimen  as 
Fig.  30.  It  represents 
the  right  side  of  the 
heart  as  filled  with  the 
dark  (blue)  venous 
blood,  and  the  left  side 
filled  with  the  bright 
(red)  arterial  blood. 

A  study  of  Fig.  30  will 
aid  to  a  better  under- 
standing of  the  above 
facts.  The  right  side  of 
the  heart  is  represented 
at  3  and  4,  while  6  and 
7  represent  the  left  side. 
The  wall  between  the  F'G'  30'  .The kheart  and  the  larger 

vessels    at    its    base    or    upper    part : 

two  is  directly  beneath    (])and  (2)  veins .   (3)  right  auricie; 

the    Small     blood    vessel     (4)  right  ventricle  ;    (5)  pulmonary  ar- 
Shown     011     the     Outside     tei7  ;    (6)   left  auricle;    (7)  left  ven- 

of  the  heart,  to  the  left    tricle;  (8)  aorta* 
of  the   number   7.     Several  blood    vessels  course  over 
the   heart,  giving  its  muscular  tissue   proper  nourish- 
ment.    A  careful  study  of  each  side  of  this  organ  will 
show  that  the  right  side  is  divided  into  two  parts  by 


106  THE   ESSENTIALS  OP  HEALTH. 

a  cross  partition.  These  parts  are  represented  by  the 
numbers  3  and  4,  the  former  being  the  right  auricle,  and 
the  latter  the  right  ventricle.  The  large  vessels,  1  and 
2,  go  to  the  right  auricle,  and  one  large  vessel,  5,  pro- 
ceeds from  the  base  of  the  right  ventricle.  The  left  side 
of  the  heart  is  partly  hidden  from  view,  still  the  num- 
bers 6  and  7  show  the  corresponding  left  auricle  and 
ventricle.  Coming  from  the  left  ventricle  is  the  largest 
artery  in  the  body,  8,  the  aorta.  The  vessels  entering 
the  left  auricle  are  hidden  from  view,  but  they  are  rep- 
resented in  the  following  diagram.  Fig.  30  is  a  fairly 
correct  anatomical  representation  of  the  heart,  with  the 
relative  size  of  its  various  parts,  while  Fig.  31  is  de- 
cidedly a  diagram. 

The  Contractions  of  the  Heart.  The  auricles  always 
contract  together.  This  contraction  is  immediately  fol- 
lowed .by  that  of  the  ventricles ;  these  also  contract 
together.  When  the  auricles  contract  they  force  their 
contents  into  the  ventricles  ;  when  the  ventricles  con- 
tract the  valves  between  the  auricles  and  ventricles 
close,  so  that  the  blood  cannot  flow  back  again.  Thus 
the  bl'ood  is  forced  out  into  the  arteries.  After  the  ven- 
tricles cease  to  contract  and  again  relax,  the  blood  is 
prevented  from  flowing  back  into  them  by  means  of 
valves.  Therefore,  valves  are  found  between  the  auri- 
cles and  the  ventricles,  and  between  the  ventricles  and 
the  arteries.  Should  these  valves  fail  to  close  and 
thus  to  prevent  the  blood  from  flowing  in  the  wrong 
direction,  the  most  serious  results  might  follow.  Occa- 
sionally the  valves  become  so  diseased  that  they  do  not 
complete!^  stop  the  flow  of  blood  backward,  producing 
a  peculiar  murmur  in  the  heart  sounds,  which  the  phy 


THE   CIRCULATION.  107 

sician  is  able  to  detect  at  once.  There  is  great  danger 
from  such  a  condition,  as  it  often  produces  instant  death. 

Each  ventricle  holds  from  four  to  six  ounces  of  blood. 
The  earlier  investigators  placed  the  amount  even  below 
four  ounces,  but  a  number  of  the  most  recent  authorities 
place  it  fully  as  high  as  six  ounces. 

The  Course  of  Blood  through  the  Heart.  The  circula- 
tion of  the  blood  through  the  heart  is  as  follows :  from 
large  veins  into  the  right  auricle ;  then  through  the 
right  ventricle;  from  this  through  the  lungs;  then 
through  the  left  auricle ;  and  finally  through  the  left 
ventricle  into  the  large  aorta  at  its  base.  Briefly  :  right 
auricle,  right  ventricle,  lungs,  left  auricle,  left  ventricle. 

A  careful  study  of  the  diagram,  as  represented  in 
Fig.  31,  will  render  this  more  clear.  The  blood  is  re- 
turned from  the  tissues  to  the  heart  by  numerous  veins. 
These  keep  uniting,  until  at  last  there  are  only  two. 
The  large  vein  represented  at  1  returns  the  blood  from 
the  lower  part  of  the  body,  while  2  is  the  vein  which 
returns  the  blood  from  the  upper  part  of  the  body. 
Both  these  large  veins  pour  their  venous  blood  into  the 
right  auricle,  3.  When  this  becomes  filled  to  its  normal 
limit  it  contracts  and  forces  the  blood  through  the  open- 
ing in  the  direction  of  the  arrowhead,  into  the  right 
ventricle,  4.  When  this  is  filled,  it  contracts.  As  soon 
as  it  does  so,  however,  the  blood  is  forced  back  against 
the  half-opened  doors,  the  valves,  causing  them  to  close 
suddenly. 

As  no  blood  can  return  into  the  auricle,  3.  it  is  forced 
into  the  small  opening  at  5,  which  is  the  beginning  of 
the  pulmonary  artery.  When  the  right  ventricle  again 
relaxes,  the  blood  from  the  pulmonary  artery  cannot 


108 


THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 


flow  back  into  it,  owing  to  the  closure  of  the  valves, 
represented  by  V  immediately  below  the  figure  5.  The 
dark  blood  then  flows  through  the  lungs,  giving  off  its 
carbonic  acid  and  receiving  a  fresh  supply  of  oxygen. 
It  finally  passes  through  the  lungs,  entering  the  four 

pulmonary  veins,  at  6, 
as  bright  arterial  blood  ; 
these  veins  bring  the 
blood  to  the  left  auricle, 
7.  When  filled  the  au- 
ricle contracts,  forcing 
its  contents  into  the  left 
ventricle,  at  8.  When 
the  left  ventricle  con- 
tracts, the  valves  between 
it  and  the  left  auricle 
close,  in  the  same  man- 
ner and  at  the  same  time 
as  those  on  the  opposite 
side.  The  blood  is  then 
forced  out  into  the  large 
aorta,  9.  From  this  ar- 


FIG.  31.  A  diagram  illustrating 
the  flow  ef  blood  through  the  heart : 
(1)  and  (2)  veins;  (3)  right  auricle; 
(4)  right  ventricle  ;  (5)  pulmonary  ar- 
tery;  (6)  pulmonary  veins;  (7)  left 


auricle;  (8)  left  ventricle;  (9)  aorta.         tery     the     blood     Cannot 

return  to  the  heart,  for 

valves  guard  the  opening  here  also.  On  through  the 
arteries  the  blood  flows  until  the  finest  capillaries  are 
reached.  Here  the  proper  nourishment  is  given  off  to 
the  tissues,  and  some  of  the  worn-out  material  received 
in  its  place.  The  blood,  now  dark  and  impure,  returns 
through  the  veins  to  the  right  side  of  the  heart,  only  to 
start  again  on  another  journey  just  such  as  we  have 
described. 


THE   CIRCULATION. 


109 


FIG.  32.    A  cross  section  of  the  ventricles  of 
the  heart. 


The  Left  Ventricle  Stronger  than  the  Right.  The  left 
ventricle  has  to  contract  with  force  sufficient  to  send  the 
blood  to  the  most  distant  parts  of  the  body ;  while  the 
right  ventricle  has  to  send  the  blood  only  to  the  lungs, 
which  are  but  a  short 
distance  from  it. 
Therefore,  we  should 
expect  to  find  the 
left  side  of  the  heart 
stronger  ;  that  is,  its 
muscular  walls 
should  be  thicker. 
In  this  case  we  are 
not  disappointed,  for 
a  cross  section  of 
the  heart  through  the  ventricles  appears  as  illustrated 
in  Fig.  32.  This  shows  the  relative  thickness  of  the 
walls  of  the  ventricles  in  their  contracted  state,  and 
also  the  difference  in  the  shape  of  the  ventricles.  To 
the  right  of  the  figure  is  the  nearly  circular  cavity  of 
the  left  ventricle,  surrounded  by  thick  walls.  To  the 
left  is  the  flattened  cavity  of  the  right  ventricle,  with 
much  thinner  walls. 

The  Pulsations  of  the  Heart.  The  beat  of  the  heart  is 
involuntary  and  subject  to  much  variation.  The  aver- 
age frequency  of  the  pulse  in  man  is  about  70  per  min- 
ute ;  while  in  woman  it  is  about  ten  more  each  minute. 
This  average  may  be  greatly  increased  for  a  short  time 
by  many  circumstances,  but  if  the  increase  be  long  con- 
tinued it  denotes  some  disturbance  of  the  system.  An 
excessive  rapidity  of  the  pulse,  continuously  beating  150 
or  160  a  minute,  indicates  great  danger ;  while  a 


HO  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

slow  pulse,  much  below  the  normal,  also  indicates  seri- 
ous trouble.  Some  persons  naturally  have  a  pulse  much 
above  or  even  below  the  average.  It  is  said  that  the 
pulse  of  Napoleon  I.  was  but  40  per  minute.  The  pulse 
varies  greatly  with  the  age.  At  birth  it  is  about  130. 
It  gradually  falls  until  at  three  years  of  age  it  is  about 
100 ;  at  fourteen,  about  80  ;  and  at  twenty-one,  about 
the  average  for  the  adult. 

Muscular  exercise  accelerates  the  pulse.  The  mus- 
cular effort  of  standing  makes  a  normal  difference  of 
ten  beats  per  minute  more  than  when  lying  down. 
Active  exercise,  as  running  and  jumping,  increases 
the  pulse.  Excitement,  as  joy  and  anger,  increases  the 
number  of  beats;  while  sorrow  and  depression  of  spirits 
may  cause  the  number  to  be  reduced,  Any  sudden 
excitement,  as  fright,  will  cause  the  heart  to  beat  vio- 
lently, so  that  it  is  felt  to  strike  with  much  force  against 
the  walls  of  the  chest.  Excessive  fear,  joy,  or  grief, 
may  have  an  effect  on  the  nervous  system  powerful 
enough  to  cause  tne  heart's  action  to  cease,  producing 
instant  death.  Taking  the  seasons  through,  the  heart 
beats  faster  in  summer  than  in  winter. 

The  Heart  Works  and  Rests.  The  heart  does  an  im- 
mense amount  of  work.  At  the  rate  of  seventy  beats 
per  minute,  there  are  a  hundred  thousand  contractions 
daily.  The  labor  expended  by  the  heart  each  day  is 
equal  to  a  force  required  to  lift  120  tons  a  foot  from  the 
ground. 

If  the  heart  does  such  an  amount  of  work,  it  must 
have  rest.  We  find  there  is  a  period  of  time  when  it  is 
completely  at  rest.  The  auricles  contract  together ;  im- 
mediately after,  the  ventricles  contract,  also ;  and  fol 


THE  CIRCULATION.  HI 

lowing  their  contraction  there  is  a  period  of  complete 
rest,  after  which  the  auricles  contract  again.  Brief  as 
this  period  is,  it  yet  represents  about  one  fourth  of  the 
time  of  a  whole  beat.  From  this  it  is  seen  that  the  sum 
of  all  these  brief  periods  for  a  whole  day  is  not  less  than 
six  hours. 

The  Sounds  of  the  Heart.  If  the  ear  be  placed  over 
the  heart  two  distinct  sounds  are  heard,  one  immediately 
following  the  other.  After  a  moment  of  silence  they 
are  repeated.  It  is  noticed  that  these  two  sounds  cor- 
respond with  each  beat  of  the  heart.  The  first  sound  is 
comparatively  long  and  dull ;  the  second,  almost  imme- 
diately following  it,  is  sharper,  shorter,  and  more  dis- 
tinct. The  sounds  are  likened  to  those  produced  by 
pronouncing  the  words  tubb,  dap.  The  whole  time  of 
the  pulsation  of  the  heart  may  be  divided  into  four 
parts  ;  the  first  sound,  two  parts ;  the  second  sound, 
one  part ;  and  the  period  of  rest,  one  part. 

The  first  sound  is  caused  by  the  sudden  closure  of  the 
valves  which  are  between  the  auricles  and  the  ventricles  ; 
together  with  the  sound  caused  by  the  powerful  contrac- 
tion of  the  muscular  walls  of  the  ventricles.  The  first 
sound  is,  therefore,  a  valve  sound  and  a  muscle  sound. 
The  second  sound  is  caused  by  the  sudden  closure  of 
the  valves  which  are  at  the  beginning  of  the  pulmonary 
artery  and  the  aorta.  It  is,  therefore,  entirely  a  valve 
sound. 

The  Pulse.  During  life  the  arteries  are  always  full  of 
blood,  but  as  their  walls  are  elastic  they  can  be  distended 
so  that  at  times  they  may  contain  more  blood  than  at 
others.  Each  contraction  of  the  heart  suddenly  forces  a 
quantity  of  blood  into  these  elastic  tubes,  distending 


112  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

their  walls.  When  the  heart  relaxes,  the  over-distended 
arteries  would  force  the  blood  back  into  it  were  it  not 
for  the  closure  of  the  valves ;  these  fully  prevent  any 
backward  flow.  As  the  blood  cannot  go  in  a  backward 
direction,  it  is  pushed  forward  under  the  pressure  of  the 
elastic  walls  of  the  arteries.  Thus  the  arteries  relieve 
themselves  of  the  excess  of  blood,  so  that  their  walls 
are  not  so  fully  distended.  But  no  sooner  have  the 
arteries  returned  to  their  former  size  than  they  are  again 
expanded  by  another  contraction  of  the  heart.  This 
series  of  expansions  of  the  arteries  give  rise  to  the  pulse, 
which  is  present  in  all  arteries.  Therefore  each  arte- 
rial expansion,  or  each  pulse,  represents  a  contraction 
of  the  ventricles.  The  pulse  thus  becomes  a  guide  for 
ascertaining  the  frequency  and  regularity  of  the  heart's 
action,  and  the  condition  of  the  general  circulation. 

As  nearly  all  the  arteries  are  deep-seated,  only  those 
few  near  the  surface  are  used  to  study  the  pulse.  The 
radial  artery  at  the  wrist  is  usually  chosen  for  this  pur- 
pose, although  the  pulse  may  be  felt  on  the  temple,  the 
necl^,  and  other  places.  It  is  possible  to  see  the  pulsa- 
tions of  an  artery  with  the  unaided  eye,  such  pulsations 
showing  at  times  on  the  temple,  on  the  neck,  or  at  the 
wrist. 

Arteries.  The  arteries  are  the  vessels  which  carry  the 
blood  from  the  heart  to  the  various  parts  of  the  body. 
The  word  "  artery "  is  derived  from  two  Greek  words 
which  signify  "receptacle  of  air;"  for  the  ancients  be- 
lieved that  these  vessels  contained  air  in  the  living  body. 
This  belief  was  probably  founded  on  the  fact  that  the  ar- 
teries are  usually  found  empty  in  the  dead  body.  This 
condition  exists  because  after  the  heart  ceases  to  beat,  the 


THE   CIRCULATION. 


113 


elastic  walls  of  the  arteries  contract  with  sufficient  force 
to  push  all  their  contents  forward  into  the  capillaries 
and  veins. 

The  arteries  are  cylindrical,  firm,  and  elastic  canals. 
Their  lining  membrane  is  a  continuation  of  the  mem- 
brane lining  the  heart.  Their  walls  are  composed 
largely  of  elastic  and  muscular  tissue.  The  strong  elas- 
tic tissue  allows  the  artery  to  expand  without  danger  of 
bursting.  The  muscular  tissue  gives  contractile  power 
to  the  artery,  so  that  it  can  accommodate  itself  to  the 
amount,  of  blood  it  contains.  The  muscle  is  of  the  in- 
voluntary variety,  and  the  cells  are  arranged  around  the 
tube,  so  that  their  contraction  will  diminish  the  size  of 
the  canal.  In  the  smaller  arteries  this  power  is  of  great 
use.  The  muscle 
coat  is  very  promi- 
nent there,  and  its 
degree  of  contrac- 
tion determines  the 
size  of  the  vessel. 
As  the  contraction 
of  the  muscle  is  un- 
der the  control  of 
the  nervous  system, 
so  there  are  many 
circumstances 
which  will  affect  the 
size  of  the  artery. 
The  muscular  and 
elastic  coats  cause  the  artery  to  retain  the  circular 
shape  when  it  is  cut  across,  so  that  it  resembles  a  tube. 
After  repeated  divisions  of  the  arteries  they  become 


FIG.  33.    A,  a  small  artery  ;    c,  capillaries  ; 
V,  a  small  vein. 


114  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

very  small,  so  that  they  can  only  be  seen  with  the  high- 
est powers  of  the  microscope.  Even  the  muscular  and 
elastic  coats  disappear,  and  only  the  thin  lining  mem- 
brane is  left. 

The  Capillaries.  When  the  artery  has  become  so  small 
that  it  has  only  the  thin  membrane  for  its  wall,  it  is 
called  a  capillary.  The  capillaries  are  the  most  minute 
blood  vessels  which  penetrate  the  organs  and  tissues  of 
the  body.  They  bring  the  blood  in  very  close  contact 
with  the  cells  of  the  tissues ;  for  between  the  living  tis- 
sues and  the  blood  in  a  capillary,  there  is  but  the  thin- 
nest membrane.  Many  of  the  capillaries  are  so  small 
that  when  the  blood  flows  through  them  the  corpuscles 
have  to  pass  in  single  file,  as  there  is  not  room  enough 
for  them  to  flow  side  by  side. 

The  Veins.  Soon  the  capillaries  unite  with  each  other 
to  make  larger  vessels,  and  their  walls  become  thicker. 
The  vessels  are  now  called  veins.  The  veins  convey  the 
blood  from  the  capillaries  toward  the  heart.  The  smaller 
veins  unite  to  make  larger  ones,  until  at  last  the  large 
veins  are  formed  which  empty  into  the  right  auricle  of 
the  heart.  The  walls  of  the  veins  are  much  thinner  and 
less  elastic  than  the  walls  of  the  arteries.  If  a  vein  be 
cut  across,  it  will  collapse  and  appear  flat,  because  there 
is  but  little  muscular  and  elastic  tissue  in  its  walls. 

Nearly  all  the  veins  have  valves  to  prevent  the  back- 
ward flow  of  the  blood.  This  is  illustrated  in  the  ac- 
companying figures.  It  is  evident  that  if  the  blood  flows 
in  the  direction  of  the  arrow-head,  in  Fig.  34,  the  valves 
will  remain  open,  but  if  it  should  attempt  to  flow  in  the 
opposite  direction,  as  in  Fig.  35,  the  valves  would  close 
and  completely  shut  off  the  passage. 


THE  CIRCULATION. 


115 


Rapidity  of  the  Circulation.  The  blood  nearest  the 
heart,  in  the  aorta,  flows  the  most  rapidly  ;  for  all  the 
force  of  the  heart's  contraction  makes  itself  felt  here. 
As  the  arteries  divide,  the  stream  becomes  less  rapid  until 

FIG.    34.  FIG.    35. 


FIG.  34.    The  valves  of  a  vein,  open. 
FIG.  35.    The  valves  of  a  vein,  closed. 

in  the  capillaries  it  is  much  slower.  It  is  estimated  that 
the  blood  in  the  aorta  flows  five  hundred  times  faster 
than  it  does  in  the  capillaries.  In  the  veins  the  flow  is 
faster  than  in  the  capillaries,  but  it  does  not  equal  the 
speed  acquired  in  the  arteries.  In  the  large  arteries 
the  blood  flows  at  the  rate  of  about  a  foot  per  second. 
A  quantity  of  blood  can  leave  the  heart,  make  a  com- 
plete circuit  of  the  circulation,  and  reach  its  starting 
place  again  in  less  than  half  a  minute. 

The  General  Circulation.  A  study  of  Fig.  36  will  give 
an  idea  of  the  manner  of  distribution  of  the  principal 
arteries,  together  with  their  names.  Let  us  follow  the 


116 


THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 


course  of  the  largest 
artery  in  the  body,  the 
aorta,  which  is  nearly 
an  inch  in  diameter. 
It  is  represented  in 
Fig.  30  at  8,  and  in 
Fig.  31  at  9.  In  Fig. 
36,  it  is  represented  as 
rising  from  the  base  of 
the  heart.  It  passes 

FIG.  36.  A  study  should 
be  made  of  this  diagram, 
which  shows  the  general  plan 
of  the  circulation  and  gives 
the  names  of  the  principal 
arteries.  S",  the  neck  ;  H, 
the  heart ;  D,  the  diaphragm  ; 
A,  the  lower  border  of  the  ab- 
dominal cavity ;  1,  1,  1,  the 
aorta ;  2,  arch  of  the  aorta;  3, 
3,  the  common  carotids,  with 
different  origins  from  the 
arch ;  4,  4,  the  external  ca- 
rotids, supplying  blood  to  the 
outer  surface  of  .the  head  ;  5, 
5,  the  internal  carotids,  to  the 
brain  and  eyes  ;  6,  6,  the  sub- 
clavian,  situated  beneath  the 
clavicle ;  7,  7,  the  axillary,  in 
the  axilla  or  armpit;  8,  8,  the 
brachial,  lying  along  the  inner 
surface  of  the  arm  ;  9,  9,  the 
radial,  on  the  outer  side  of  the 
forearm;  10, 10,  the  ulnar,  on 
the  inner  side  of  the  forearm; 

11,  the  hepatic,  to  the  liver  ;  12,  the  gastric,  to  the  stomach;  13,  the  splenic, 
to  the  spleen;  14,  the  superior  mesenteric,  to  the  small  intestines  and  a 


THE  CIRCULATION.  11T 

npward  a  short  distance,  then  arches  backward  to  the 
left,  and  descends  by  the  side  of  the  vertebral  column. 
It  passes  down  through  an  opening  in  the  diaphragm,  D, 
and  continues  down  the  abdominal  cavity,  until  at  its 
lower  part  it  divides  into  two  branches.  The  aorta  is 
the  great  central  artery  of  the  body.  It  is  deeply  seated 
in  the  thoracic  and  abdominal  cavities,  and  is  well  pro- 
tected from  injury. 

Generally  speaking,  the  veins  are  placed  side  by  side 
with  the  arteries,  and  .have  corresponding  names.  The 
large  vein  by  the  side  of  the  aorta  is  called  the  inferior 
vena  cava. 

Force  of  the  Circulation.  The  heart  contracts  with 
sufficient  force  to  send  the  blood  on  its  complete  round 
of  the  circulation.  But  there  are  aids  to  this  force. 

Aids  to  the  Circulation.  Exercise  is  one  of  the  greatest 
aids  to  the  circulation.  It  not  only  causes  the  heart  to 
beat  faster  and  thus  hastens  the  flow  of  blood,  but  it  is 
a  direct  aid  to  the  movement  of  blood  in  the  veins. 
When  a  vein  is  filled,  the  blood  cannot  flow  backward 
toward  the  capillaries  on  account  of  the  valves ;  there, 
fore,  if  the  muscles  be  made  to  contract  and  thereby 
press  upon  the  veins,  the  blood  will  be  pushed  onward. 
When  the  muscle  relaxes,  the  vein  is  again  filled  with 
blood  coming  from  the  capillaries.  More  muscular  ex- 
ercise will  again  hasten  on  the  blood  to  the  heart.  The 
surface  of  the  body  should  be  kept  warm,  because  cold 

portion  of  the  large  intestine ;  15,  15,  the  renal,  to  the  kidneys  ;  16,  the 
inferior  mesenteric,  to  a  portion  of  the  large  intestine  ;  17,  17,  the  common 
iliac,  divisions  of  the  aorta ;  these  soon  divide  into  two  branches,  one  sup- 
plying the  tissues  of  the  pelvis,  and  the  other  (18,  18,)  continuing  along 
the  inner  side  of  the  thigh,  as  the  femoral. 


118  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

contracts  the  blood  vessels,  and  thus  interferes  with  a 
free  circulation.  Very  tight  clothing  is  also  a  hindrance 
to  the  free  flow  of  the  blood.  The  clothing  may  fit 
closely  and  yet  not  so  tightly  that  the  flow  of  the  blood 
in  the  veins  is  impeded. 


THE    EFFECTS    OF    ALCOHOL    AND    TOBACCO. 

Alcohol  and  the  Heart.  The  heart  is  an  involuntary 
muscle  ;  it  keeps  steadily  at  work,  whether  we  "  will "  to 
have  it  or  not.  While  it  is  not  under  the  control  of  the 
will,  yet,  like  all  other  muscles,  it  is  controlled  by  nerves. 
Experiments  have  proved  that  there  are  nerves  which 
act  as  brakes  to  the  heart,  holding  it  -in  check  and 
regulating  its  beat. 

In  a  later  chapter  will  be  stated  more  fully  how  alco- 
hol tends  to  benumb,  or  partially  paralyze,  the  nerves. 
So  alcohol  tends  to  paralyze  the  nerves  that  hold  the 
heart  in  check.  As  a  result,  the  heart  beats  faster. 
One  result  of  this  extra  work  is  that  the  muscles  of  the 
heart  become  thickened  and  the  cavities  enlarged.  The 
heart  is  not  in  repose  long  enough  to  have  its  over- 
worked tissues  fully  nourished,  and  so  a  process  of  de- 
generation begins.  Particles  of  fat,  or  oil,  take  the 
place  of  the  muscle.  At  first,  this  is  very  slight ;  but 
gradually  a  change  occurs,  until  much  of  the  worn-out 
muscle  disappears  and  fatty  tissue  takes  its  place. 

The  heart  now  becomes  very  weak,  hardly  able  to 
force  the  blood  through  its  proper  channels.  The  cir- 
culation is  poor,  the  extremities  are  swollen,  arid  there 
is  difficulty  in  breathing.  The  physicians  call  this 


ALCOHOL   AND   TOBACCO.  119 

trouble  "  fatty  degeneration  of  the  heart."  The  heart 
becomes  weaker  and  weaker,  until,  suddenly,  it  is  un- 
able to  do  its  work  longer,  and  death  occurs.  This  is 
no  idle  story.  The  effect  of  alcoholic  beverages  is  so 
marked  tha'j  fatty  degeneration  of  the  heart  is  often 
called,  by  physicians,  the  "  whiskey  heart,"  or  the  "  beer- 
drinker's  heart." 

It  is  well  to  remember  that  the  strongest  drinks  are 
not  necessarily  required  to  produce  these  changes.  The 
extra  amount  of  flesh  found  in  those  who  use  ale  and 
beer  freely  is  of  this  fatty  nature  ;  and  a  fatty  heart  is 
no  more  than  we  would  expect  to  find  in  such  a  fleshy 
body.  Physiologically,  alcohol  over-works  the  heart; 
anatomically,  alcohol  changes  its  structure.  Alcohol 
never  imparts  life-giving  power,  while  it  often  causes 
death. 

Alcohol  and  the  Arteries.  The  same  changes  already 
mentioned,  as  occurring  in  the  muscular  tissue  of  the 
heart,  may  also  take  place  in  the  muscular  tissue  of  the 
walls  of  the  arteries.  The  cells  become  weakened  by 
the  deposit  of  fat  within  them,  and  thus  the  whole  wall 
loses  some  of  its  strength.  This  makes  the  walls  more 
liable  to  rupture,  and  is  one  of  the  predisposing  causes 
of  apoplexy. 

Alcohol  and  the  Smaller  Vessels.  The  walls  of  the 
smaller  arteries  consist  largely  of  muscular  tissue. 
This  tissue  is  continuously  kept  in  a  partially  contracted 
condition,  in  order  that  the  walls  may  be  more  firm. 
The  muscular  tissue  is  under  the  control  of  minute 
nerves,  called  the  vaso-motor  nerves.  These  nerves  are 
capable  of  making  the  muscle  contract  firmly,  thereby 
diminishing  the  size  of  the  vessel;  while  if  they  cease 


120  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 

to  act,  from  any  cause,  the  muscle  relaxes  and  the  size 
of  the  vessel  is  greatly  increased. 

The  small  arteries  are  said  to  have  "  tone "  when 
these  nerves  exert  their  power,  and  keep  the  muscle  in 
its  usual  condition  of  moderate  contraction.  The  walls 
of  the  smaller  arteries,  therefore,  are  constantly  in  a 
state  of  moderate  contraction.  The  effect  of  alcohol  is 
to  partially  paralyze  these  vaso-motor  nerves,  so  that 
they  cease  to  exert  their  full  power  on  the  muscular 
tissue.  If  a  small  dose  of  an  alcoholic  beverage  be 
taken,  the  effect  may  be  slight  and  only  temporary,  as 
illustrated  in  the  flushing  of  the  face  ;  if  not  repeated, 
recovery  may  be  complete  ;  but  a  continuation  of  such 
doses  causes  the  paralysis  to  become  more  permanent, 
and  the  nerves  to  lose  their  power  of  controlling  the 
size  of  the  blood  vessels. 

Not  only  the  red  nose  and  the  red  eyes  of  the  con- 
firmed drinker,  but  the  reddened  face  and  distended 
capillaries  often  seen  in  the  moderate  drinker,  are  in- 
dications of  the  paralysis  of  the  vaso-motor  nerves. 
The  "tone"  has  disappeared  from  the  walls  of  the 
blood  vessels ;  the  muscular  tissue  is  becoming  or  has 
become  permanently  relaxed,  and  the  vessels  are  con- 
stantly in  a  distended  condition.  But  the  nose,  eyes, 
and  other  portions  of  the  face  are  not  the  only  places 
where  this  congestion  occurs.  It  exists  in  the  mucous 
membranes  of  the  body  to  a  large  extent ;  while  many 
of  the  organs  and  tissues  are  also  in  this  chronic  con- 
gested condition. 

If  such  a  condition  of  things  were  to  arise  from  any 
other  cause  the  individual  would  be  greatly  worried  and 
would  seek  medical  advice  at  once.  But  he  either  does 


ALCOHOL   AND  TOBACCO.  121 

not  realize  that  the  alcohol  is  the  cause  of  all  the  aches 
and  pains  he  feels,  or  cares  too  much  for  it  to  give  it  up, 
and  thus  he  continues  his  downward  course.  We  in- 
sist that  the  man  who  is  under  the  influence  of  powerful 
poison  is  a  sick  man,  no  matter  whether  he  be  intoxi- 
cated, or  simply  indulges  in  moderate  doses.  In  either 
case  his  system  is  affected,  and  he  should  be  under  the 
careful  attention  of  a  competent  physician. 

Such  men  need  medical  advice  and  restorative  reme- 
dies far  more  than  the  vast  majority  of  those  who  are 
regular  patrons  of  the  physician's  office.  The  burning 
of  the  stomach,  the  darting  neuralgic  pains,  the  head- 
aches, all  these  and  many  other  ailments  indicate  the 
tremendous  damaging  power  of  this  poison.  Nothing 
short  of  a  strong  resolve  to  use  no  more  alcoholic  liquors 
will  answer.  To  attempt  to  stop  gradually  is  a  very 
poor  plan  ;  but  even  a  firm  resolve,  the  breaking  away 
from  old  associates,  and  the  forming  of  new,  may  not 
prove  sufficient.  The  old  appetite  remains.  It  is  here 
that  the  competent  physician  can  accomplish  much. 
He  can  aid  nature  in  her  efforts  to  restore  the  body  to 
health.  He  can  aid  in  building  up  the  tissues,  in  cor- 
recting the  congested  and  inflamed  organs,  and  thus 
banish  from  the  system  an  appetite  as  unnatural  as  it  is 
injurious. 

But  how  can  all  this  be  prevented  ?  How  can  we  all 
escape  the  strong  power  of  alcohol  ?  Simply  by  refus- 
ing to  take  the  first  glass  of  any  kind  of  alcoholic 
drink. 

Tobacco  and  the  Heart.  Tobacco  affects  the  heart 
largely  through  the  action  of  the  nicotine  on  the  nerv- 
ous system.  A  prolonged  use  of  tobacco  frequently  gives 


122  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 

rise  to  a  particular  affection  known  as  the  "  tobacco 
heart."  The  author  has  seen  a  strikingly  large  number 
of  these  cases  in  young  men  between  fifteen  and  twenty 
years  of  age.  The  heart  is  irregular  in  its  action  and 
sometimes  beats  with  great  force.  This  is  often  accom- 
panied with  a  sensation  of  weakness  or  great  anxiety. 
There  are  occasional  attacks  of  dizziness,  shortness  of 
breath,  nausea,  and  vomiting.  At  times  there  is  intense 
pain  in  the  region  of  the  heart.  Tobacco  will  not  make 
so  serious  changes  in  the  structure  of  the  heart  as  have 
been  described  under  alcohol,  yet  it  is  capable  of  doing 
immense  harm. 

Within  a  few  years  there  have  been  well-known  in- 
stances among  our  most  prominent  statesmen,  where 
death  was  instantaneous,  as  a  result  of  disease  of  the 
heart  from  the  long-continued  use  of  tobacco.  With 
such  a  history,  tobacco  should  no  longer  be  regarded  as 
a  luxury,  but  rather  as  a  slow  poison  capable  of  accom- 
plishing an  enormous  amount  of  damage. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  Name  the  four  parts  of  the  circulatory  apparatus. 

2.  Describe  the  heart,  and  its  position  in  the  chest. 

3.  Describe  the  cavities  of  the  heart  and  the  valves  between  them. 

4.  Give  the  course  of  the  blood  through  the  heart. 

5.  Which  ventricle  is  the  stronger?     Why? 

6.  How  many  sounds  of  the  heart?     Describe  them. 

7.  What  causes  the  pulse  ? 

8.  What  is  the  structure  of  the  walls  of  the  arteries? 

9.  How  do  the  veins  differ  from  the  arteries? 

10.  How  rapid  is  the  circulation  ? 

11.  Give  some  of  the  effects  of  alcohol  on  the  smaller  vessels. 

12.  How  does  tobacco  affect  the  heart  ? 


SUGGESTIONS  TO   TEACHERS.  123 


SUGGESTIONS    TO    TEACHERS. 

1.  The  Heart.     Procure  the  heart  of  a  calf  or  sheep  at 
the  market.     Preserve  the  large  vessels  at  its  base.     Wash 
in  water  and  wipe  dry.     Call  attention  to  the  shape ;  to  the 
auricles ;  and  to  the  ventricles.     Hold  the  heart  obliquely, 
as  in  Figs.  29  and  30,  thus  showing  its  position  in  the  body. 

2.  Circulation  through  the  Heart.      This   can   be   illus- 
trated by  pointing  to  the  parts  in  order,  thus  :  right  auri- 
cle, right  ventricle,  left  auricle,  left  ventricle,  according  to 
Fig.  31.     The  right  side  of  the  heart  can  be  told  from  the 
jeft  by  remembering  that  the  left  ventricle,  projects  around 
to  form  the  point  of  the  heart  and  a  small  part  of  the  ante- 
rior surface.     The  walls  of  the  right  side  are  also  thinner. 

3.  The  Arteries.    Notice  the   size   and  the  thick  walls 
of  the  aorta.     It  keeps  open,  as  a  circular  tube.     Lift  the 
heart  by  the  aorta,  and  notice  the  elasticity  of  the  artery. 

4.  The  Veins.      These  will   be   collapsed,   with   thinner 
walls,  which  are  not  elastic  like  the  aorta. 

5.  Walls  of  the  Ventricles.     Cut  the  heart  open  trans- 
versely about  half  way  back  from  the  apex,  to  illustrate 
Fig.  32.     The  firm  partition    between  the  ventricles,   the 
relative   thickness  of  the  walls,    and  the    smooth  lining- 
membrane,  will  be  brought  to  view. 

6.  Valves.     Cut  away  the  ventricles  close  to  the  auri- 
cles.    Notice  the  thin  membranes  which  are  between  the 
auricles  and  ventricles  ;   these  are  the  valves. 

7.  Pericardium.     By  making  arrangements  at  the  mar- 
ket, a  heart  may  be  procured,  surrounded  by  its  sac.     This 
is  the  pericardium.     Cut  it  open  with  scissors.     A  small 
amount  of  fluid  may  escape.     Notice  how  smooth  is  the 
lining  of  this  membrane. 


124  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

RESPIRATION. 

The  Nasal  Cavities.  The  nostrils  are  the  proper  chan- 
nels through  which  the  air  should  reach  the  lungs.  The 
nose  has  at  least  three  important  functions  to  perform 
in  connection  with  respiration :  these  are  to  warm,  to 
moisten,  and  to  filter  the  inspired  air. 

The  first  of  these  is  evidently  very  important ;  for,  if 
the  cold  air  of  winter  should  be  brought  directly  in  con- 
tact with  the  tissues  of  the  throat  and  larynx,  inflam- 
mation would  be  likely  to  follow,  causing  sore  throat, 
hoarseness,  and  loss  of  voice.  The  tissues  of  the  nasal 
cavities  are  so  well  supplied  with  blood  that  they 
are  capable  of  warming  the  air  as  it  passes  over  them, 
until  its  temperature  more  nearly  equals  that  of  the 
body. 

The  second  function  is  likewise  important :  there  is 
at  least  a  pint  of  serum  secreted  every  twenty-four  hours 
by  the  mucous  membrane  lining  the  nose :  the  inspired 
air  passes  through  the  nose,  takes  up  this  moisture,  and 
becomes  saturated  with  it.  That  the  inspired  air  takes 
moisture  from  the  tissues  is  easily  proven  by  breathing 
through  the  mouth  for  a  short  time.  The  throat  soon 
becomes  dry,  and  swallowing  is  difficult.  The  cells  cov- 
ering much  of  the  lining  membrane  of  the  nose  are  of 


RESPIRATION.  125 

the  ciliated  variety,  as  represented  at  4,  in  Plate  I.  The 
cilia  catch  the  particles  of  matter  found  in  dust  and 
smoke,  and  in  the  ordinary  inspired  air.  In  this  way  the 
nose  acts  as  a  filter. 

Mouth  Breathing.  When  breathed  through  the  mouth, 
the  air  is  but  little  warmed,  is  only  slightly  moistened, 
and  is  not  filtered.  Mouth  breathing  brings  the  air  in 
contact  with  the  larynx,  trachea,  and  bronchial  tubes, 
scarcely  changed.  It  is  still  cold,  dry,  irritating,  and, 
as  a  result,  more  or  less  inflammation  is  produced. 
Inflammation  of  the  throat,  enlarged  tonsils,  chronic 
hoarseness,  and  coughs  are  some  of  the  affections  which 
result  from  the  pernicious  habit  of  breathing  through 
the  mouth.  Nature  intended  we  should  breathe  through 
the  nose,  and  a  number  of  evils  will  result  if  we  fail  in 
so  doing.  If  it  be  impossible  to  get  air  through  the 
nose,  a  physician  should  be  consulted  that  the  difficulty 
may  be  removed.  Early  attention  to  these  conditions 
would  do  much  to  prevent  the  catarrhal  affections  so 
prevalent  in  this  country. 

The  Larynx.  After  the  inspired  air  has  passed  through 
the  nose,  it  enters  the  upper  part  of  the  pharynx.  From 
here  it  passes  down  the  throat,  until  opposite  the  base 
of  the  tongue,  where  it  reaches  the  larynx.  The  larynx 
is  situated  at  the  upper  and  front  part  of  the  neck.  It 
contains  the  parts  necessary  for  the  production  of  the 
voice.  The  expansion  on  the  front  of  the  larynx,  so 
much  more  prominent  in  men  than  in  women,  is  com- 
monly known  as  Adam's  apple.  The  larynx  is  com- 
posed of  cartilages,  lined  with  a  mucous  membrane. 
About  the  middle  of  its  interior  are  two  strong  bands 
of  elastic  tissue,  called  the  vocal  cords.  They  extend 


126 


THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 


from  the  front  to  the  back  of  the  laryngeal  cavity.     The 
space  between  them,  through  which  the  air  passes,  is 


FIG.  37. 


FIG.    38. 


FIG.  37.  The  position  of  the  vocal  cords  during  inspiration  :  the 
rings  of  the  trachea  are  seen  between  the  vocal  cords. 

FIG.  38.  The  position  of  the  vocal  cords  when  uttering  a  high  note : 
V  C,  vocal  cords  ;  E,  epiglottis. 

called  the  glottis :  this  opening  varies  in  size  according 


FIG.  39.  A  diagram  illustrating  how  the  vocal  cords  are  seen,  as  In 
Figs.  37,  38  :  M,  a  circular  mirror  held,  by  a  band,  to  the  forehead  of  the 
operator ;  L,  a  lamp,  placed  at  the  side  of  the  patient's  head,  to  throw 
light  on  the  large  mirror,  M  ;  m,  a  small  mirror  held  in  the  back  of  the 
throat  of  the  patient :  E,  epiglottis  ;  v  c,  location  of  the  vocal  cords. 


RESPIRATION. 


127 


\ 


to  the  tension  of  the  vocal  cords.  This  is  well  illus- 
trated by  referring  to  Figs.  37  and  38.  During  inspira- 
tion the  vocal  cords  are  quiet,  and  the  opening  between 
them  is  large,  as  in  Fig.  37 ;  but  when  sounds  are  pro- 
duced the  vocal  cords  come  together  and  the  glottis  is 
narrowed.  The  "pitch"  TOBil^...._wm_JI,  mssm^ 
of  the  voice  depends 
upon  the  length  of  the 
vocal  cords ;  the  longer 
cords  producing  the 
lower  tones.  For  this 
reason  the  voice  is 
shrill  in  children,  and 
usually  higher  in  women 
than  in  men.  The  male 
larynx  grows  rapidly  at 
12  or  14  years  of  age, 
causing  the  voice  to 
"  break  "  easily,  and 
gradually  change  to  a 
lower  pitch. 

The  laryngoscope 


\    \ 


$3 


consists  of  a  small  mir- 


FIG.  40.     A  diagram  illustrating  the 
position  and  use  of  the  epiglottis  :  N,  na- 
ror   attached   to    a  long     sal  passages  ;    M,  mouth  ;  o,  ossophagus  ; 

handle.  To  Use  it,  the  L>  larrnx  '>  T'  tonSue  '  the  feathered  ar- 
rows represent  the  passage  for  air  ;  the 
plain  arrows,  the  passage  for  food. 


mirror  is  introduced  as 

shown  in  Fig.  39.   Light 

is  reflected  from  a  large  mirror  to  the  one  in  the  back 

part  of  the  throat.     This  mirror  reflects  the  light  down 

the  larynx  so  that  it  becomes  brilliantly  illuminated.     A 

picture  of  the  larynx  is  thus  formed  in  the  mirror,  to 

which  the  observer  directs  his  eye. 


128  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF  HEALTH. 

The  Epiglottis.  The  entrance  to  the  larynx  is  pro- 
tected by  a  valve,  or  lid,  called  the  epiglottis.  During 
respiration  the  epiglottis  is  directed  upward,  so  that 
the  larynx  is  open ;  but  during  the  act  of  swallowing, 
the  epiglottis  shuts  tightly  down  over  the  larynx,  pre- 
venting the  entrance  of  any  solid  or  liquid.  Occasion- 
ally, however,  a  particle  of  food  "  goes  the  wrong  way  " 
and  slips  into  the  larynx,  when  a  violent  cough  is  neces- 
sary for  its  removal.  Fig.  39  gives  a  correct  representa- 
tion of  the  parts  under  discussion.  Fig.  40  is  a  diagram, 
illustrating  more  clearly  the  location  and  function  of  the 
epiglottis. 

The  Trachea.  The  trachea,  commonly  known  as  the 
windpipe,  consists  of  a  number  of  rings  of  cartilage. 
These  rings  are  not  quite  complete  at  the  back  of  the 
trachea ;  however,  the  tube  is  completed  by  a  thin  mem- 
brane. The  rings  are  placed  one  over  the  other,  sepa- 
rated only  by  a  narrow  membrane.  They  keep  the 
trachea  from  collapsing  ;  thus  always  insuring  a  free 
passage  for  the  air.  The  tube  is  lined,  its  whole  length, 
with  a  mucous  membrane.  About  opposite  the  upper 
part  of  the  sternum,  the  trachea  divides  into  two 
branches,  called  the  bronchi,  one  branch  going  to  each 
lung. 

The  Bronchi  and  the  Air  Cells.  After  entering  the 
lungs,  the  bronchi  divide  again  and  again,  until  they 
are  very  minute  in  size.  They  are  everywhere  lined 
with  a  mucous  membrane.  A  study  of  Fig.  41  will 
make  these  facts  more  simple.  At  1,  is  the  epiglottis, 
standing  guard  over  the  entrance  to  the  air  passages 
below ;  at  2,  is  the  larynx,  or  voice  box ;  at  3,  is  the 
trachea  with  its  rings  of  cartilage;  at  4,  is  the  right 


RESPIRATION. 


129 


lung,  so  drawn  that  the  bronchial  tubes  can  be  seen 
within   it. 

After  these  have  become  very  small,  from  their  re- 
peated divisions,  they  terminate  in  a  collection  of  minute 


*-7iG.  41.     The  respiratory  apparatus  :    (1)  the  epiglottis  ;    (2)  the  larynx  ; 
(3)  the  trachea  ;  (4)  the  right  lung  ;  (5)  the  left  lung. 

sacs,  called  air  cells.  The  walls  of  these  air  cells  are 
very  thin  and  highly  elastic.  They  can  be  distended  by 
slight  force,  and  when  the  force  is  removed,  they  can  at 
once  resume  their  former  size.  Fig.  42  shows  a  terminal 


130 


THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 


bronchial  tube  with  its  air  cells.  If  we  bear  in  mind  that 
these  air  cells  have  elastic  walls,  it  is  easy  to  imagine 
how  they  could  be  inflated,  like  so  many  rubber  sacs, 

by  forcing  air  into  the  tube,  at 
1.  This  is  practically  about 
what  occurs  during  an  ordinary 
respiration. 

The  inner  surface  of  these  air 
cells  is  exposed  to  the  air  which 
enters  the  lungs.  The  amount 
of  surface  thus  exposed  is  very 
great,  being  estimated  to  be  at 
least  fourteen  hundred  square 
feet.  Surrounding  the  walls  of 
the  air  cells  is  a  dense  network 
of  capillary  blood  vessels.  Thus 
the  blood  itself  is  separated  from 
the  air  only  by  an  extremely 
It  is  here,  in  the  air  cells,  that  the 
changes  occur  which  transform  the  dark  venous  blood 
into  the  bright  arterial  blood. 

The  Pleura.  The  pleura  is  a  double  membrane,  cov- 
ering the  inside  of  the  thoracic  cavity  and  the  lungs. 
One  membrane  is  closely  fastened  to  the  inner  walls 
of  the  chest,  while  the  other  covers  the  surface  of  the 
lungs.  The  space  between  these  membranes  is  called 
the  pleural  cavity.  The  pleura  secretes  a  fluid,  so  that 
its  two  surfaces  may  move  against  each  other  easily  and 
without  friction,  as  they  do  in  ordinary  breathing.  An 
inflammation  of  this  membrane  is  called  pleurisy  ;  it  is 
extremely  painful,  because  each  time  a  breath  is  taken 
the  lungs  expand,  causing  the  inflamed  membrane  cov- 


FIG.  42.  (1)  the  end  of  a 
small  bronchial  tube  ;  (2)  air 
cells  ;  (3)  some  of  the  air  cells 
cut  open,  showing  free  passage 
to  them  from  the  bronchial 
tubes. 


thin  membrane. 


RESPIRATION.  131 

ering  the  lungs  to  move  against  another  inflamed  mem- 
brane lining  the  walls  of  the  chest. 

The  Lungs.  The  two  lungs  are  situated  in  the  tho- 
racic cavity,  one  in  either  side  of  the  chest.  Owing  to 
the  amount  of  elastic  tissue  in  the  air  cells,  the  lungs  have 
great  elasticity.  When  removed  from  the  body  they 
appear  completely  collapsed ;  still  they  float  in  water  on 
account  of  the  air  yet  remaining  in  the  air  cells.  When 
in  this  collapsed  condition,  if  a  tube  be  placed  in  the 
trachea  the  lungs  may  be  inflated  by  blowing  into  the 
tube  or  by  forcing  air  in  with  a  pair  of  bellows.  After 
the  inflation,  it  is  only  necessary  to  remove  the  tube  or 
allow  the  air  to  escape  through  it,  when  the  lungs  will 
immediately  collapse  again.  Thus  it  is  easily  proved 
that  if  some  force  be  applied  to  send  air  into  the  lungs, 
the  elastic  tissue  in  the  air  cell  swill  stretch  like  rubber; 
and  that  as  soon  as  the  force  is  removed  the  elastic  tis- 
sue will  return  to  its  former  condition. 

Why  Air  enters  the  Lungs.  The  mechanism  of  res- 
piration is  not  unlike  that  of  a  pair  of  bellows.  When 
the  handles  are  raised  the  inside  of  the  bellows  is  made 
larger,  and  the  air  rushes  in  to  fill  the  extra  space. 

The  chest  is  a  tight  box,  with  only  one  opening,  and 
that  at  the  top,  —  the  larynx.  If  this  box  be  suddenly 
enlarged  the  air  will  rush  in  through  the  opening ;  this 
is  called  inspiration.  When  the  box  ceases  to  enlarge* 
no  more  air  enters.  Immediately  all  the  parts  that  were 
under  a  tension  to  enlarge  the  box  return  to  their  for- 
mer condition.  Thus  the  box  is  made  smaller  and  the 
air  rushes  out  of  the  opening  at  the  top ;  this  is  called 
expiration.  From  this  we  conclude  that  air  enters  the 
lungs  because  the  chest  is  made  larger ;  and  that  it  leaves 


132 


THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 


the  lungs  because  the  chest  is  made  smaller.  Before 
discussing  this  subject  more  in  detail,  it  will  be  well  to 
fix  in  the  mind  the  shape  of  the  thoracic  cavity,  its  con- 
tents, and  the  relation  of  certain  organs  to  each  other. 


FIG.  43.  The  position  of  the  lungs,  and  their  relation  to  certain  organs  ; 
(1)  the  trachea  ;  (2)  the  clavicle  ;  (3)  the  ribs  ;  (4)  the  lungs;  (5)  a  dark 
curved  line,  showing  the  position  of  the  heart ;  (6)  the  diaphragm,  extend' 
ijg  in  a  curved  direction  from  one  figure  to  the  other;  (7)  the  liver; 
(8)  the  stomach  ;  (9)  the  sternum. 

A  reference  to  Fig.  43  will  illustrate  these  points.  The 
lungs  rise  above  the  collar  bone,  2,  to  form  the  apex  of 
the  chest :  below,  they  rest  upon  the  curved  diaphragm, 
6,  which  divides  the  thoracic  from  the  abdominal  cavity. 


RESPIRATION. 


133 


The  relative  position  of  the  heart  is  shown  by  the  curved 
line,  5.  Pressing  up  against  the  under  surface  of  the 
diaphragm,  on  the  right  side  is  the  liver,  7,  while  on  the 
left  side  is  the  stomach,  8.  By  glancing  at  this  figure 
it  is  easily  understood  that  if  the  lower  ribs  be  brought 
tightly  together  from  any  cause,  as  by  tight  lacing,  the 
stomach  and  liver  will  be  forced 
up  against  the  diaphragm.  As 
a  result  of  this  it  would  be  ex- 
tremely difficult  for  the  dia- 
phragm to  become  straighter 
or  lower,  or,  as  illustrated  in  the 
figure,  for  the  line  6  to  become 
shorter.  The  application  of  this 
fact  will  be  seen  later. 

Inspiration.     The  chest  is  en- 
larged first,  by  the  raising  of  the 

ribs.      By  the  contraction  of  cer-     ty  is  enlarged  during  inspira- 

tain  muscles  the  ribs  are  moved  tion :  8  c'  sPinal  column ' s  T' 
upward  and  outward  ;  this 
enlarges  the  chest  anteriorly  and 
laterally.  That  the  chest  is 
enlarged  between  the  sternum 
and  the  spinal  column  is  readily  seen  by  referring  to 
Fig.  44.  S  C  represents  the  spinal  column,  and  S,  the 
sternum.  After  expiration,  when  the  chest  is  at  rest,  it 
is  noticed  that  the  ends  of  the  ribs  attached  to  the  ster- 
num, S,  are  much  lower  than  the  ends  attached  to  the 
spinal  column ;  this  fact  is  also  illustrated  in  Figs.  29 
and  43.  Now  in  Fig.  44  it  is  evident  that  if  the  ribs, 
R,  are  raised  by  any  force,  they  will  carry  the  sternum 
with  them  to  the  point  S  T.  It  is  also  evident  that  the 


FIG.  44.    A  diagram  illus- 
trating how  the  thoracic  cavi- 


RI,  and  DM,  illustrate  the 
position  of  the  sternum,  ribs, 
and  diaphragm,  during  inspi- 
ration ;  s,  R,  and  D,  their 
position  during  expiration. 


134  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

distance  between  S  C  and  S  T  is  much  greater  than  that 
between  S  C  and  S.  Therefore  we  conclude  that  rais- 
ing the  ribs  increases  the  size  of  the  chest  from  front 
to  back.  Because  the  ribs  are  curved,  the  chest  is 
enlarged  from  side  to  side  when  they  are  raised. 

Second,  the  chest  is  enlarged  by  the  contraction  of 
the  diaphragm.  Attention  has  already  been  called  to 
this  thin  muscle.  When  it  relaxes  it  is  in  the  form  of 
a  vaulted  partition,  with  its  rounded  portion  rising  into 
the  cavity  of  the  chest,  as  represented  in  Fig.  43,  and  at 
D,  Fig.  44.  When  the  diaphragm  contracts,  it  shortens, 
assuming  more  nearly  a  straight  line,  as  in  D  M,  Fig. 
44 ;  thus  the  convexity  becomes  greatly  diminished. 
The  contraction  of  the  diaphragm,  therefore,  makes  it 
descend  toward  the  abdomen  ;  this  must  enlarge  the 
thoracic  cavity  from  above  downwards.  Thus  we  con- 
clude that  in  ordinary,  quiet  breathing  we  do  not  draw 
the  air  into  the  lungs  ;  the  air  rushes  in,  without  aid, 
to  fill  the  chest,  which  is  made  larger  by  the  elevation 
of  the  ribs  and  the  contraction,  or  lowering,  of  the 
diaphragm. 

Expiration.  Ordinary  expiration  occurs  without  the 
aid  of  muscles.  By  the  relaxation  of  the  muscles  of 
the  chest,  the  ribs  fall  back  to  their  natural  places. 
The  relaxation  of  the  diaphragm  causes  it  to  protrude 
again  into  the  chest,  aided  by  the  pressure  of  the  ab- 
dominal organs  from  beneath  pushing  up  against  it. 
The  distended  elastic  tissue  of  the  air  cells  now  seeks  to 
return  to  its  natural  condition,  thus  diminishing  the  size 
of  the  air  cells,  and,  consequently  the  size  of  the  whole 
lungs ;  the  thoracic  walls  keep  in  contact  with  the  dimin- 
ishing lungs,  and  thus  the  air  rushes  out  of  the  larynx. 


RESPIRATION. 

Respiration.  Respiration  is  the  function  by  which 
oxygen  is  introduced  into  the  body,  and  carbonic  acid 
removed  from  it. 

Ordinary  breathing  is  involuntary.  We  breathe  when 
we  are  not  thinking  of  it,  and  breathe  as  regularly  when 
asleep  as  when  awake.  But  respiration  is  also  volun- 
tary, for  it  is  possible  to  breathe  more  slowly  or  more 
rapidly  than  usual,  for  a  short  time.  By  taking  advan- 
tage of  this  fact  the  respiratory  muscles  can  be  greatly 
strengthened.  Like  other  muscles  they  can  be  devel- 
oped and  strengthened  by  exercise.  Singing  and  speak- 
ing call  for  a  full  exercise  of  these  muscles,  and  when 
properly  employed  they  are  very  beneficial. 

The  imitations  of  crying,  laughing,  and  the  like  are 
voluntary  respiratory  movements,  principally  spasmodic 
contractions  of  the  diaphragm.  Even  these  movements 
may  be  involuntary  ;  the  spasmodic  action  of  the  dia- 
phragm may  go  beyond  control,  so  that  it  is  impossible 
to  cease  laughing  or  crying. 

Number  of  Respirations.  The  number  of  respirations 
should  be  about  one  to  every  four  beats  of  the  pulse. 
As  the  average  pulse  of  the  male  adult  is  about  70,  so 
the  number  of  respirations  should  be  about  18.  But 
this  is  influenced  by  many  conditions  ;  as,  the  size  of  the 
lungs,  the  condition  of  the  air,  exercise,  singing,  speak- 
ing, and  many  other  circumstances.  The  number  can- 
not, however,  be  lowered  for  any  considerable  length  of 
time ;  the  demands  of  the  system  for  more  oxygen, 
and  for  an  escape  of  the  carbonic  acid  are  so  great  that 
it  is  impossible  to  resist  them. 

Sounds  of  the  Chest.  When  the  air  rushes  in  and  out  of 
the  lungs,  peculiar  sounds  are  produced.  These  are 


136  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

easily  changed  by  unhealthy  conditions  of  the  lung 
tissue ;  the  air  may  not  enter  a  portion  of  the  lungs  ; 
it  may  enter  a  cavity ;  or  it  may  pass  over  a  membrane 
either  too  dry  or  too  moist.  Any  such  departures  from 
health  cause  a  change  in  the  normal  sounds.  A  careful 
study  of  these  sounds  enables  the  physician  to  determine 
the  healthy  or  unhealthy  condition  of  the  lungs.  By 
their  aid,  he  can  understand  the  nature  of  the  disease, 
and  how  far  it  has  progressed. 

The  Inspired  Air.  Each  inspiration  brings  about 
twenty  cubic  inches,  or  two  thirds  of  a  pint  of  air  into 
the  lungs.  This  air  only  extends  down  the  lungs  a 
short  distance,  probably  not  much  below  the  larger 
bronchial  tubes.  If  the  air  should  remain  here  it  would 
be  of  little  use.  But  the  law  of  the  diffusion  of  gases  is 
such  that  the  gases  —  the  oxygen  and  the  carbonic  acid 
—  which  are  in  the  bronchial  tubes  and  the  air  cells 
freely  and  rapidly  intermingle.  The  inspired  air  brings 
oxygen  to  the  red  corpuscles  of  the  blood. 

The  Expired  Air.  If  the  expired  air  be  collected  and 
examined,  it  will  be  found  to  differ  from  the  inspired 
air  in  the  following  particulars  :  1.  It  has  lost  oxygen. 
The  expired  air  contains  nearly  five  per  cent  less  oxygen 
than  the  atmospheric  air.  2.  It  has  gained  carbonic 
acid.  The  expired  air  contains  nearly  a  hundred  times 
more  carbonic  acid  than  the  atmospheric  air.  This  gas 
represents  one  of  the  waste  products  of  the  body,  and 
must  be  removed.  3.  It  has  absorbed  water.  The  expired 
air  is  saturated  with  watery  vapor.  This  is  easily  shown 
by  breathing  on  a  mirror,  or  on  any  polished  surface. 
4.  It  contains  organic  matter.  The  amount  is  usually 
very  slight,  and  not  easily  detected.  If  it  be  in  excess 


RESPIRATION.  137 

/ 

it  imparts  a  perceptible  odor  to  the  breath,  which  may 
be  both  offensive  and  poisonous.  Even  with  the  ordi- 
nary amount,  its  presence  is  easily  detected  if  a  number 
of  persons  be  confined  in  a  small  room  where  there  is 
poor  ventilation.  Under  such  circumstances  the  odor 
becomes  very  offensive,  remaining  in  the  room  for  hours 
after  it  is  vacated  by  the  people.  5.  The  expired  air  is 
usually  warmer.  To  be  more  exact,  it  is  generally 
about  the  temperature  of  the  body,  being  unaffected  by 
the  variable  temperature  of  the  inspired  air. 

The  Lungs  as  Excretory  Organs.  An  excretion  consists 
of  waste  products  that  are  useless  or  injurious  to  the 
body,  and  must  be  separated,  or  thrown  off,  from  it.  Cer- 
tain organs  are  known  as  the  excretory  organs,  because 
of  the  work  they  accomplish  in  this  line.  Viewed  in  this 
light,  the  lungs  must  be  regarded  as  excretory  organs, 
as  they  are  constantly  throwing  off  from  the  body  car- 
bonic acid  and  other  impurities. 

ALCOHOL,  TOBACCO,  AND  THE  LUNGS. 

Alcohol.  Persons  who  are  in  the  habit  of  using  alco- 
holic beverages  seem  to  be  especially  liable  to  colds, 
and  to  bronchial  affections.  Probably  one  explanation  of 
this  is  that  often  the  circulation  in  such  persons  is  poor, 
and  the  heart's  action  affected.  As  a  result,  there  is  a 
slight,  but  constant  congestion  of  the  lungs  ;  that  is,  too 
much  blood  is  in  the  lung  tissue.  In  some  cases,  late 
hours  and  bad  habits  of  life  increase  the  effects  just 
noted. 

It  is  certainly  true  that  an  inflamed  condition  of  the 
throat  and  larynx  is  generally  found  in  those  addicted 


138  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

to  strong  drink,  while  attacks  of  bronchitis  are  not 
infrequent.  Another  fact  stands  very  prominent.  It 
is  this :  the  probability  of  recovery  from  an  attack  of 
pneumonia  is  immensely  less  in  the  intemperate  than 
in  the  temperate.  We  believe  the  great  majority  of 
physicians,  everywhere,  will  testify  to  the  truth  of  this 
statement.  It  is  generally  recognized  that  the  contin- 
ued use  of  strong  drink  undermines  the  power  of  the 
body  to  resist  disease,  and  in  no  disease  is  it  more 
marked  than  in  the  one  already  mentioned. 

Tobacco.  Tobacco  especially  affects  the  upper  air  pas- 
sages. The  irritating  qualities  of  the  smoke  keep  the 
throat  congested,  so  that  smokers  suffer  from  a  special 
variety  of  catarrh,  known  as  the  "  smoker's  sore  throat." 
The  larynx  is  often  in  sympathy  with  the  throat  affection, 
and  there  is  a  dry,  hacking  cough. 

QUESTIONS. 

j.   Give  three  important  functions  of  the  nose. 

2.  'State  why  these  are  so  important. 

3.  Why  is  breathing  through  the  mouth  injurious  ? 

4.  What  is  within  the  larynx? 

5.  Where. is  the  epiglottis?     What  is  its  use  ? 

6.  Describe  the  trachea. 

7.  Describe  the  air  cells.     What  changes  occur  in  blood  here  ? 

8.  State  some  facts  about  the  pleura. 

9.  How  would  you  prove  that  the  lungs  have  great  elasticity  ? 

10.  Give  the  mechanism  of  respiration. 

11.  How  is  the  chest  enlarged  in  inspiration? 

12.  What  is  respiration  ?     Is  it  voluntary  ? 

13.  How  many  respirations  per  minute? 

14.  How  does  the  expired  air  differ  from  the  inspired? 

15.  Give  some  of  the  ill  effects  of  alcohol  and  tobacco. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS.  139 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS. 

1.  The  Respiratory  Apparatus.    Procure  the  lungs  of  a 
eheep  at  the  market.     Wash  in  water,  and  wipe  carefully. 
Call  attention  to  the  trachea,  the  bronchi,  and  the  lungs. 

2.  Inflation  of  the  Lungs.     Insert  a  tube  of  any  kind 
into  the  trachea.    Tie  the  trachea  tightly  about  it.    Breathe 
into  the  tube  and  so  force  air  into  the  lungs,  thus  making 
them  expand  as  in  inspiration.     Remove  the  mouth  and 
the  lungs  will  collapse,  as  in  expiration.     A  pair  of  bel- 
lows is  the  best  for  inflating  the  lungs. 

3.  Lung  Tissue  will  Float.    Cut  off  a  small  piece  of  the 
lung  tissue  and  throw  it  into  water ;  it  will  float,  showing 
that  air  still  remains  in  the  air   cells.     Press  the  pieces 
in  the  hands  to  force  out  the  air ;  still  it  will  not  sink. 

4.  The  Trachea  is  always  Open.     Cut  the  trachea  trans- 
versely.    Try  to  compress  it,  and  thus  illustrate  how  the 
rings  of  cartilage  keep  it  open  so  that  it  cannot  collapse. 
Notice  that  the  rings  of  cartilage  are  incomplete  behind ; 
and  that  a  membrane  completes  them. 

5.  The  Bronchi.      Cut   away   the   lung  tissue   which  is 
near  the  lower  end  of  the  trachea.     First  notice  how  the 
trachea  divides  into  two  bronchi,  before  entering  the  lungs ; 
then  notice  how  these  divide  into  the  bronchial  tubes. 

6.  The  Larynx.     By  previous  arrangement  at  the  market, 
a  complete  larynx  may  be  procured.     This  will  show  the 
epiglottis,  the  vocal  cords,  and  the  hard  cartilaginous  walls. 

7.  Respiratory  Acts.     Have  the  pupils  illustrate  inspira- 
tion, expiration,  and  a  complete  respiration. 

8.  Respiration,  Voluntary  and  Involuntary.     Show  that 
respiration  is  voluntary  by  fast,  then  slow  breathing ;  this 
soon  becomes  tiresome. 

9.  Watery  Vapor.    Breathe  on  any  polished  surface,  and 
notice  the  condensed  vapor. 


140  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 


CHAPTER   XIII. 

VENTILATION. 

Amount  of  Air  Inhaled.  In  the  preceding  chapter  it  was 
stated  that  about  twenty  cubic  inches  of  air  are  inhaled 
at  each  inspiration.  Based  on  this  statement,  and  mak- 
ing due  allowances  for  muscular  exertion  by  which 
breathing  is  increased  in  frequency,  it  is  safe  to  say 
each  person  uses  at  least  three  hundred  and  fifty  cubic 
feet  of  air,  daily,  in  respiration. 

Oxygen  supports  Life.  After  breathing  the  air  once  it 
still  contains  considerable  oxygen  ;  after  breathing  this 
same  air  over  and  over  again  the  amount  is  so  reduced 
that  the  animal  dies  from  suffocation.  In  the  case  of  man, 
if  the  amount  of  oxygen  in  the  air  be  reduced  one  half, 
breathing  continues  with  great  difficulty.  A  certain 
amount  of  oxygen  in  the  air  is  necessary  to  support 
human  life ;  while  a  much  less  amount  of  oxygen  is 
required  to  support  life  in  some  of  the  lower  animals. 

It  requires  more  oxygen  for  the  burning  of  a  candle 
than  it  does  to  support  life,  for  a  short  time.  Advantage 
is  often  taken  of  this  fact  to  test  the  safety  of  entering 
a  well,  a  vault,  or  an  underground  passage.  A  lighted 
candle  is  lowered  into  the  cavity ;  if  a  sufficient  amount 
of  oxygen  be  present,  the  candle  will  continue  to  burn  ; 
if  not,  it  will  be  immediately  extinguished.  If  the  can- 


VENTILATION.  141 

die  continues  to  burn  it  will  be  safe  for  the  man  to  enter 
the  enclosure,  for  the  reason  that  more  than  enough 
oxygen  is  present  to  support  human  life. 

Carbonic  Acid  is  a  Poison.  Each  respiration  not  only 
takes  oxygen  from  the  air,  but  it  also  gives  to  it  a  quan- 
tity of  carbonic  acid  and  other  deleterious  ingredients. 
Hence  it  is  injurious  to  breathe  the  same  air,  even  for 
the  second  time.  If  the  air  be  poor  in  oxygen,  it  will 
contain  a  large  amount  of  carbonic  acid.  As  this  gas 
is  heavier  than  the  air,  it  will  fall  when  confined  in  a 
small  space  and  left  undisturbed.  The  air  which  is  the 
least  capable  of  supporting  life  is  then  found  at  the  low- 
est level.  For  this  reason  the  air  at  the  bottom  of  the 
well  is  much  more  poisonous  than  the  air  nearer  the 
top. 

An  animal  placed  in  a  closed  space  will  absorb  from 
the  air  a  certain  amount  of  the  oxygen,  and  will  give 
off  carbonic  acid.  Soon  the  surrounding  atmosphere 
will  be  so  saturated  with  carbonic  acid  that  no  more  of 
it  will  pass  from  the  body  ;  this  is  according  to  certain 
laws  respecting  the  diffusion  of  gases;  therefore  the 
carbonic  acid  is  retained  in  the  blood  of  the  animal, 
causing  its  speedy  death.  This  carbonic  acid  poisoning 
may  occur  while  there  is  yet  enough  oxygen  remaining 
in  the  air  to  support  life. 

From  what  has  been  said,  we  conclude  that  oxygen  is 
necessary  to  life,  and  that  an  insufficient  amount  of  it 
in  the  air  will  cause  death.  We  also  conclude  that  if 
the  carbonic  acid  be  not  removed,  it  may  accumulate  in 
the  air  sufficiently  to  cause  death.  The  air  we  breathe, 
therefore,  should  have  a  certain  amount  of  oxygen,  and 
should  not  have  an  excess  of  carbonic  acid. 


142  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

A  person  is  warned  when  needing  more  oxygen  and 
less  carbonic  acid,  unless  as  the  result  of  some  acci- 
dent. Headaches,  restlessness,'  heaviness,  and  drowsi- 
ness result  from  a  deficiency  of  oxygen  and  a  surplus 
of  carbonic  acid.  Unless  the  system  is  freely  supplied 
with  the  former  and  readily  disposes  of  the  latter,  the 
vital  forces  become  lowered  and  the  whole  body  predis- 
posed to  disease. 

An  Abundance  of  Air  Necessary.  The  above  facts  are 
given  especially  that  we  may  appreciate  the  necessity 
for  an  abundance  of  fresh  air.  It  does  not  necessarily 
follow  that  the  person  must  be  either  out  of  doors  or  in 
a  very  large  room;  but  it  does  follow  that,  under  all 
circumstances,  an  abundant  supply  of  fresh  air  should 
be  continuously  within  reach  of  the  body. 

Pure  Air.  The  fact  that  the  air  is  cold,  and  feels  fresh 
to  the  face,  is  not  proof  that  it  is  pure ;  currents  of  air 
may  be  loaded  with  poisons.  Pure  air  contains  the 
proper  proportion  of  oxygen,  and  is  free  from  poison- 
ous gases  and  disease  germs.  Out-door  air  is  not  neces- 
sarily pure,  as  some  sewer  gas  or  decaying  animal  matter 
may  be  near.  Yet,  as  a  rule,  owing  to  the  law  of  the 
diffusion  of  gases,  out-door  air  is  the  purest.  An  abun- 
dance of  pure  air  is  what  is  demanded. 

It  is  not  always  possible  to  tell  when  the  air  is  pure ; 
for  the  best  ordinary  test  we  have  is  the  sense  of  smell. 
Upon  entering  a  room,  if  the  air  seems  "  close  "  it  is  suf- 
ficient proof  that  better  ventilation  is  needed.  After  re- 
maining in  a  close  room  the  nose  becomes  accustomed 
to  the  odor  and  the  closeness  is  not  noticed,  so  the  ques- 
tion of  ventilation  should  be  attended  to  as  soon  as  the 
room  is  entered. 


VENTILATION.  143 

A  Deficiency  of  Air  Dangerous.  Many  cases  are  on 
record  where  persons  have  been  poisoned  by  repeatedly 
breathing  the  same  air.  This  is  not  likely  to  occur  in 
our  houses,  because  there  are  so  many  crevices  about 
the  windows  and  doors  that  enough  fresh  air  enters. 
But  in  the  holds  or  cabins  of  ships,  and  in  the  deep 
cells  of  prisons,  some  terrible  results  have  occurred. 

Many  writers  have  referred  to  the  "  black  hole  of  Cal- 
cutta "  as  an  illustration  of  this  fact.  In  a  small  room 
with  only  two  narrow  windows,  there  were  confined  one 
hundred  and  forty-six  prisoners ;  these  persons  were 
obliged  to  breathe  the  same  air  over  and  over  again, 
for  the  windows  were  altogether  too  small  to  allow  a 
sufficient  amount  of  fresh  air  to  enter.  In  eight  hours 
one  hundred  and  twenty-three  of  the  prisoners  were 
dead,  while  those  whose  lives  were  spared  endured 
great  suffering. 

Many  rooms,  built  to  accommodate  large  numbers  at 
a  time,  have  an  insufficient  supply  of  fresh  air,  as,  for  in- 
stance, schoolrooms,  lecture-halls,  and  churches.  While 
such  a  deficiency  may  not  be  enough  to  cause  death,  yet 
the  effect  on  the  body  is  marked  and  harmful.  Drowsi- 
ness, with  a  dull,  heavy  headache,  often  results  from  a  stay 
in  such  a  poorly  ventilated  room.  The  listless  and  sleepy 
appearance  of  many  a  scholar  is  simply  the  result  of  im- 
pure air,  rather  than  of  a  dull  mind.  "  Break  open  the 
window ! "  shouted  a  noted  divine,  in  the  midst  of  his 
discourse,  as  he  saw  many  in  his  congregation  asleep. 
He  knew  that  the  most  brilliant  speaker  could  not  over- 
come the  drowsy  effects  of  impure  air. 

If  it  becomes  necessary  to  spend  a  considerable  time 
each  day  in  a  poorly  ventilated  or  overcrowded  room  the 


144  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 

whole  body  is  soon  affected.  Living  in  poorly  ventilated 
rooms  enfeebles  tbe  whole  body ;  the  appetite  fails,  the 
red  corpuscles  are  reduced  in  number,  the  skin  becomes 
colorless,  and  the  whole  system  shows  that  it  is  suffer- 
ing from  too  little  oxygen  and  from  too  much  carbon  k 
acid.  Colds  and  coughs  are  frequent ;  and  the  system 
has  only  slight  power  to  resist  disease  of  any  kind. 
The  whole  condition  is  one  of  "  oxygen  starvation " 
and  carbonic  acid  poisoning. 

The  Proper  Amount  of  Air.  It  has  been  stated  that  an 
abundance  of  pure  air  is  necessary.  It  is  better  to  say 
that  an  over-abundance  is  necessary,  so  that  if  any 
error  be  committed  it  may  be  on  the  safe  side.  The 
supply  of  fresh  air  required  for  a  room  depends  largely 
on  the  number  of  persons  in  the  room ;  for  it  is  evident 
that  a  hundred  persons  will  require  a  hundred  times  as 
much  air  as  one  person. 

Then,  too,  the  presence  of  fires  in  the  room  must  be 
considered.  The  burning  gas  consumes  much  oxygen 
and  gives  off  carbonic  acid.  For  this  reason  a  crowded 
hall,  on  a  cold  winter's  evening,  with  heavy  fires  and 
lighted  gas,  requires  much  more  ventilation  than  when 
a  small  company  is  assembled  on  a  warm  summer's  day. 
As  it  would  cause  discomfort  to  raise  the  windows  and 
open  the  doors  during  the  winter  time,  it  follows  that 
some  system  of  ventilation  is  absolutely  necessary  for 
all  places  where  persons  are  likely  to  assemble. 

Heating  and  Ventilation.  How  to  obtain  an  unfailing 
supply  of  fresh,  out-door  air  in  our  rooms  is  the  con- 
stant study  of  those  who  plan  homes  and  public  build- 
ings. Years  ago  this  subject  received  no  attention 
whatever.  This  was  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  the 


VENTILATION.  145 

method  of  heating  the  houses  was  far  different  from 
that  used  at  the  present  day.  The  open  fireplaces  made 
a  constant  change  of  air,  while  the  cracks  about  the 
doors  and  windows  furnished  avenues  through  which 
the  fresh  air  entered  the  rooms. 

A  furnace  gives  good  ventilation,  because  as  the  warm 
air  enters  the  room  from  the  registers  the  cold  air 
escapes  through  ventilators  in  the  wall  near  the  floor ; 
thus  a  constant  current  of  air  is  established.  Great 
care  should  be  exercised  to  see  that  the  cold  air-flue  of 
the  furnace  receives  its  supply  from  clean  surroundings. 
If  the  out-door  air,  entering  the  flue  is  near  decaying 
animal  or  vegetable  matter,  or  an  imperfect  sewer,  then 
the  impure  air  might  be  conveyed  into  the  building, 
producing  severe  and  perhaps  fatal  sickness. 

If  the  rooms  be  heated  by  a  furnace,  the  air  should  be 
moistened  by  having  it  pass  over  a  dish  of  water.  A  fail- 
ure to  do  this  results  in  the  necessity  of  breathing  very 
dry  air,  which  is  decidedly  injurious.  The  open  grates  of 
modern  days  are  good  ventilators.  An  ordinary  stove 
is  a  means  of  ventilation,  for  as  the  draught  passes 
through  it  and  up  the  chimney,  fresh  air  comes  in 
through  the  opening  of  doors  and  the  crevices  of  the 
windows  to  take  its  place. 

Attention  should  always  be  given  to  the  ventilation  of 
the  sleeping  rooms.  One  third  of  our  entire  lives  is 
spent  in  these  rooms,  yet  how  often  do  we  neglect  to 
make  them  either  cheerful  or  healthful.  Unless  the 
builders  of  the  house  have  provided  some  method  of 
ventilation,  the  air  may  be  changed  by  raising  the  lower 
sash  of  one  window  and  lowering  the  upper  sash  of 
another.  A  better  method,  however,  is  to  admit  the 

10 


146  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 

air  into  the  room  through  wire  gauze,  used  as  window 
screens.  There  are  a  number  of  ventilators  for  sale  in 
the  market  which  allow  a  free  passage  of  air  and  yet 
effectually  prevent  draughts. 

If  the  lower  window  sash  be  raised  about  six  inches 
and  a  board  be  placed  under  it,  completely  filling  the 
space  between  it  and  the  window  casing,  there  will  be 
established  some  ventilation  between  the  sashes  where 
they  meet  but  where  they  no  longer  fit  tightly.  This 
is  a  fairly  good  method  for  the  winter,  but  hardly  suffi- 
cient for  the  more  quiet  air  of  .summer. 

The  teacher  generally  gives  personal  attention  to  the 
ventilation  of  the  schoolroom,  and  the  proper  authorities 
should  insist  that  some  method  be  devised  in  order  that  the 
change  of  air  may  be  constant  and  abundant.  This  does 
not  mean  ventilation  at  noon  and  recess  only ;  it  means 
that  the  change  should  be  continuous  and  uninterrupted, 
for  anything  short  of  this  fails  to  answer  the  purpose. 

Improper  Ventilation.  Ventilation  is  improper  if  it 
causes  sudden  changes  in  the  temperature  of  the  air. 
After  the  hearty  plays  of  recess  when  the  skin  is  moist 
with  perspiration,  the  pupils  should  not  sit  down  in  a 
cool  room.  This  is  too  often  the  cause  of  colds  and 
coughs.  The  schoolroom  should  be  of  an  even  temper- 
ature all  through  the  day ;  therefore  there  must  be  a 
constant  and  uninterrupted  change  in  the  air.  Ventila- 
tion is  improper  if  it  produces  a  current  of  air  ;  if  a 
draught  of  air  be  allowed  to  strike  the  back  of  the  neck, 
or  any  sensitive  part  of  the  body,  it  is  very  likely  to 
cause  a  cold.  These  currents  of  air  should  be  carefully 
avoided,  especially  when  the  body  is  resting  from  active 
exercise. 


VENTILATION.  147 

Night  Air.  Some  persons  seriously  object  to  opening 
the  windows  of  their  sleeping  rooms  at  night,  for  fear  of 
"the  deadly  night  air."  Yet  all  the  lower  animals 
breathe  it,  from  the  delicate  and  tender  young  to  the 
strong  and  aged.  Soldiers  and  hunters  breathe  it  as 
they  sleep  beneath  their  tents,  and  in  the  open  air,  while 
many  invalids  have  been  restored  to  health  by  living  out 
of  doors  both  day  and  night.  Fear  cold  draughts,  but 
do  not  fear  the  night  air.  Florence  Nightingale  said  :  — 

"  The  choice  is  between  pure  air  without  and  impure  air 
within ;  most  people  prefer  the  latter,  an  unaccountable 
choice.  An  open  window  most  nights  in  the  year  can  hurt 
no  one.  In  great  cities  the  night  air  is  the  best  and  purest 
in  the  twenty-four  hours.  I  could  better  understand,  in 
towns,  shutting  the  windows  during  the  day  than  during 
the  night." 

Ventilate  the  Cellar.  The  cellars  of  houses  and  other 
buildings  are  often  great  reservoirs  of  foul  air.  The  cel- 
lars of  dwellings  frequently  have  stored  in  them  quantities 
of  vegetable  matter  which  give  off  injurious  gases  as  they 
decompose.  As  the  room  is  usually  dark,  the  decaying 
organic  matter  is  unseen,  and  hence  it  remains  until  the 
escaping  gases  penetrate  the  rooms  above,  and  endanger 
the  lives  of  their  inhabitants.  Cellars  should  be  well 
ventilated,  kept  scrupulously  clean,  and  so  built,  if  pos- 
sible, that  the  sunlight  can  enter  them. 

Drainage.  The  escape  of  gas  from  defective  plumb- 
ing of  houses,  and  from  improperly  constructed  drains 
and  sewers,  is  the  cause  of  much  sickness.  Gas  may 
escape  from  a  sewer  which  is  near  or  under  the  house, 
and  enter  the  rooms  without  being  detected.  The  risk  is 
even  greater  when  the  pipes  or  drains  become  obstructed., 


148  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 

thus  preventing  the  full  flow  of  their  contents.  No  one 
should  occupy  a  house,  no  matter  how  well  it  may  he 
provided  "  with  all  modern  improvements,"  until  he  is 
satisfied  that  the  plumbing  is  in  good  condition,  and 
that  the  sewers  and  drains  are  properly  constructed. 

Deodorizers.  One  odor  may  cover  another  without 
destroying  it.  A  free  use  of  cologne  may  cover  the 
odor  of  a  poorly  ventilated  room,  hut  it  will  neither 
remove  the  carbonic  acid  and  organic  matter,  nor  will 
it  bring  more  oxygen.  Coffee  and  sugar  are  often 
burned  in  a  room  to  destroy  some  poisonous  or  disa- 
greeable odor.  They  do  not  destroy,  however ;  they  sim- 
ply cover  one  odor  with  another  which  is  more  powerful. 
Any  substance  that  will  replace  or  cover  the  odor  of 
another,  and  yet  not  destroy  it,  is  called  a  deodorizer. 

Disinfectants.  There  are  substances  which  actually 
destroy  odors ;  these  are  true  disinfectants.  Bad  odors 
in  the  atmosphere  often  depend  upon  the  presence  of 
impurities  dangerous  to  health  and  life ;  these  must  be 
removed,  as  far  as  possible,  by  free  ventilation  and  by 
the  use  of  destroying  agents.  Many  chemicals  possess 
the  power  of  purifying  the  air  from  germs,  and  from  the 
products  of  decaying  animal  and  vegetable  matter.  Dis- 
infectants are  used  to  purify  sewers,  cess  pools,  sinks, 
and  to  destroy  the  germs  of  scarlet  fever,  diphtheria, 
and  small-pox.  They  are  also  largely  used  by  Boards 
of  Health  and  by  physicians,  to  destroy  d4sease  germs. 
A  disinfectant  may  be  perfectly  odorless  itself,  and 
yet  have  the  power  of  destroying  the  most  offensive 
odors.  The  chlorides  and  sulphates  of  the  metallic  salts 
are  powerful  disinfectants.  Preparations  of  the  chlorides 
are  on  the  market  which  are  reliable  and  convenient 


VENTILATION.  149 

The  sulphate  of  iron  (copperas),  dissolved  in  water  in 
the  proportion  of  four  ounces  to  the  gallon,  is  a  useful 
disinfectant  for  cleansing  gutters,  drains,  sewers,  etc. 

Absorbents.  Absorbents  are  used  to  take  up  the  gases 
from  decomposing  materials.  Lime  and  charcoal  are 
the  most  frequently  used  for  this  purpose.  White- 
washing a  room  renders  the  air  sweeter  and  purer  be- 
cause it  absorbs  certain  gases  in  the  atmosphere. 

Contagion.  Some  of  the  most  poisonous  substances 
are  entirely  free  from  odor.  This  is  the  case  with  the 
germs  which  are  believed  to  cause  a  number  of  diseases. 
Scientists  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  germ  theory  of 
disease,  but  it  seems  altogether  probable  that  a  number 
of  diseases,  such  as  diphtheria,  scarlet  fever,  measles, 
and  small-pox  are  caused  by  minute  germs.  In  some 
way  the  germs  gain  an  entrance  into  the  body  where 
they  develop  and  cause  disease. 

If  a  well  person  approaches  one  thus  ill  and  comes  in 
contact  with  these  germs,  and  if  the  body  of  the  well 
person  be  in  just  such  a  condition  that  these  germs  can 
there  thrive  and  develop,  then  the  exposed  party  will, 
in  due  time,  be  ill  with  the  same  disease.  These  germs 
may  lie  dormant  for  years  until  their  surroundings  are 
suitable  for  their  development.  A  grain  of  wheat  may 
be  kept  for  years  and  show  no  signs  of  life ;  but  when 
at  last  it  is  surrounded  with  warmth  and  moisture  it 
begins  to  revive  and  to  give  evidences  of  life.  Soon  a 
sprout  appears,  when,  if  food  and  sunlight  be  added,  it 
will  bear  fruit. 

Thus  disease  germs  may  remain  in  a  room  for  a  long 
time,  clinging  to  the  paper,  the  carpet,  or  the  walls. 
Months,  or  even  years  afterwards,  some  inhabitant  of 


150  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 

the  room  may  fall  a  victim  to  scarlet  fever  or  small- 
pox. Then  it  is  remembered  that  not  since  the  illness 
of  the  last  patient  has  the  room  been  occupied,  and  never 
has  it  been  thoroughly  disinfected.  Germs  may  not  only 
lie  dormant  in  this  way,  but  they  may  be  carried  long 
distances  in  the  clothing,  or  in  the  hair. 

From  the  above  outline,  only  too  brief  for  such  an 
important  subject,  some  valuable  conclusions  may  be 
drawn.  Persons  suffering  from  such  contagious  diseases 
as  scarlet  fever  or  diphtheria  should  be  kept  in  a  well 
ventilated  room,  which  none  but  the  physician  and  nurse 
should  enter ;  the  nurse  should  leave  the  room  only  for 
exercise,  and  then  she  should  have  a  second  room  in 
which  she  could  change  her  clothing,  and  make  free  use 
of  the  best  disinfectants.  These  ideas  are  now  thor- 
oughly understood  by  all  competent  physicians,  who  can 
be  relied  upon  to  see  them  carried  out  in  detail. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  Give  the  amount  of  air  inhaled  with  each  inspiration. 

2.  What  is  said  about  the  necessity  of  oxygen  ? 

3.  What  do  you  learn  about  carbonic  acid  ? 

4.  Pure  air  should  contain  what  ?     And  be  free  from  what  ? 

5.  Give  some  of  the  bad  effects  from  a  deficiency  of  air. 

6.  The  supply  of  fresh  air  required  for  a  room  depends  upon 
what  conditions  or  circumstances? 

7.  Give  some  of  the  methods  mentioned  for  ventilation. 

8.  When  is  ventilation  improper  ? 

9.  What  is  a  deodorizer  V 

10.  What  is  a  disinfectant?     Name  one. 

11.  Name  some  absorbents. 


THE  KIDNEYS. 


151 


CHAPTER   XIV. 


THE    KIDNEYS. 


General  Description.  The  kidneys  are  two  in  number, 
one  on  either  side  of  the  spinal  column.  Each  kidney 
is  about  four  inches  in 
length,  two  inches  in 
breadth,  and  about  an 
inch  in  thickness,  and 
from  four  and  one  half  to 
six  ounces  in  weight.  The 
upper  border  of  the  kid- 
ney is  about  on  a  level 
with  the  eleventh  rib. 

A  kidney  resembles  a 
bean  in  shape.  It  is  com- 
pletely covered  with  a 
thin  membrane,  called  the 
capsule.  The  convex  bor- 
der of  either  kidney  is 
placed  toward  the  side  of 
the  body,  while  the  con- 
cave border  is  next  the 
spinal  column.  Each  kid- 
ney is  supplied  with  blood  by  an  artery  which  arises 
from  the  aorta.  This  vessel  enters  the  kidney  as  shown 


FIG.  45.  A  kidney  :  A,  an  artery ; 
v,  a  vein  ;  D,  the  duct  that  carries 
away  the  materials  filtered  from  the 
Mood. 


152 


THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 


at  A,  Fig.  45.     After  the  arterial  blood  has  circulated 

through  the  kidney  it  is  returned  through  a  vein  at  V. 

This  vein  empties  into  the  large  vein  which  lies  by  the 

side  of  the  aorta. 

Minute  Structure. 
On  making  a  section 
through  the  long  di- 
ameter of  a  kidney, 
a  s  represented  i  n 
Fig.  46,  it  appears 
to  consist  of  two 
different  substances. 
The  outer  part,  near 
the  convex  border, 
looks  red  and  gran- 
ular. Farther  in, 
are  seen  a  number 
of  little  eminences, 
illustrated  at  5.  Fig. 
46.  Fine  lines  ex- 
tend fan-shaped, 
toward  the  convex 
border.  They  re- 

FIG.  46.     A  section   through  a  kidney  :  present   a  Collection 
(1,  2,  3,  4),  collections  of  tubes,  or  canals;  of  Canals 
(5),  papillae  on  which  the  tubes  open  ;    (6),  „,  ,  .    , 
below  the  end  of  the  dotted  line  is  a  blood          The  most  interest- 
vessel  ;   others  are  seen  above  this  ;    (7),  the  ing    portion    of    the 
dilated  beginning  of  the   duct,    (8),  which  kidney    is   found    ill 

that  part   near  the 

convex  border,  to  the  left  of  Fig.  46.  Here  active  changes 
are  constantly  taking  place.  In  this  portion  there  are 
seen,  with  the  microscope,  vast  numbers  of  small,  round, 


THE   KIDNEYS. 


red  bodies,  which  are  but  the  beginnings  of  long,  narrow 
tubes.  Two  of  these  red  bodies  are  illustrated  in  Fig. 
47.  Each  body  consists  of  coils  of  capillary  blocd  ves- 
sels, surrounded  by  a  mem- 
brane. While  the  blood  is 
circulating  through  these 
bodies,  certain  substances, 
principally  water,  are 
taken  from  the  blood. 
These  substances  are  car- 
ried away  through  the  mi- 
nute canals  until  they  empty 
into  a  large  duct,  shown  at 
7  and  8,  Fig.  46.  This  duct 
carries  the  secretion  directly 
to  a  reservoir,  designed 
especially  for  its  reception. 

Thus  we  find  that  the 
kidneys  are  purely  excretory 
organs,  taking  from  the  blood  materials  which  would 
rapidly  prove  poisonous  if  allowed  to  remain  in  the 
body. 

Urea.  The  most  important  ingredient  taken  from 
the  blood  by  the  kidneys  is  called  urea.  It  represents 
the  worn-out,  or  used  up,  nitrogenous  tissues  of  the 
body.  A  greater  part  of  the  nitrogen  which  enters  the 
body  with  the  foods  is  removed  from  it  by  the  kidneys 
in  the  form  of  urea.  If,  for  any  reason,  the  kidneys 
fail  to  take  the  urea  from  the  blood,  the  most  serious 
results  follow.  Symptoms  of  blood  poisoning  soon  ap- 
pear, and  convulsions  and  even  death  speedily  follow; 
unless  the  difficulty  be  promptly  relieved. 


FIG.   47.    One  of  the  tubes  of  the 
kidney,  magnified. 


154  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 

If  some  of  the  tubes  be  affected,  as  in  Bright' s  dis- 
ease, then  the  kidneys  do  not  completely  remove  the 
waste  products  from  the  blood,  and  prolonged  sickness 
results.  At  last,  the  accumulation  of  urea  in  the  system 
is  sufficient  to  produce  poisoning  and  death. 

Danger  from  Colds.  Disease  of  the  kidneys  is  often 
caused  by  exposure  to  cold,  especially  if  the  body  be 
moist  with  perspiration  at  the  time.  If  the  function  of 
the  skin  be  suddenly  checked  by  the  action  of  cold,  the 
blood  leaves  the  surface  and  goes  to  internal  organs,  as 
the  kidneys,  causing  congestion ;  the  excretory  work  the 
skin  was  performing  is  thus  suddenly  thrown  on  the 
kidneys,  making  them  do  double  duty.  As  a  result 
they  become  inflamed  and  unable  to  properly  perform 
their  work. 


ALCOHOL,    AND    THE    KIDNEYS. 

Alcohol  is  recognized  as  one  of  the  most  frequent 
causes  of  kidney  disease,  and  especially  of  that  form 
known  as  Bright's  disease.  When  much  alcohol  is 
used,  a  certain  proportion  of  it  passes  out  of  the  body 
unchanged,  through  the  kidneys.  The  alcohol  comes  in 
contact  with  the  delicate  cells  lining  the  tubes,  and  so 
alters  them  that  they  are  unfitted  to  do  their  work. 

If  the  use  of  the  alcohol  be  continued  the  cells  grad- 
ually diminish  in  size,  the  round  bodies  become  smaller, 
and  the  tubes  and  canals  likewise  are  reduced.  The 
connective  tissue,  which  is  used  only  to  hold  the  tubes 
and  canals  together,  grows  thicker  and  thicker,  until  the 
whole  organ  becomes  largely  composed  of  it. 


THE  KIDNEYS.  155 

At  last  many  of  the  tubes  become  so  useless  that  the 
urea  is  not  taken  from  the  blood,  and  death  occurs.  To 
produce  these  changes  in  the  structure  of  the  kidney  it 
is  not  necessary  that  the  drink  be  strong  with  alcohol. 
Many  such  cases  are  directly  caused  by  the  use  of  ale 
and  beer. 

It  is  absolutely  necessary  that  all  poisonous  materials 
be  removed  from  the  body  as  nature  intended.  We  may 
deprive  ourselves  of  food  and  keep  nourishment  from  en- 
tering the  body  for  days  at  a  time.  We  may,  in  this 
way,  check  the  action  of  those  organs  directly  concerned 
in  the  secretion  of  the  digestive  juices,  as  the  stomach 
and  the  pancreas.  But  we  cannot  check,  even  for  the 
shortest  time,  the  action  of  those  organs  employed  in 
the  removal  of  the  worn-out  and  poisonous  materials 
of  the  body,  without  seriously  endangering  the  health 
and  even  the  life. 

In  view  of  these  facts,  it  does  not  seem  possible  that 
any  one  who  is  familiar  with  them  would  try  the  experi- 
ment of  taking  alcoholic  beverages  into  the  body  ;  espe- 
cially so  when  science  so  clearly  points  to  their  direct 
effect  on  such  important  organs  as  the  kidneys.  It  is 
an  experiment  that  has  cost  many  thousands  of  lives. 

QUESTIONS. 

'i.   Give  a  general  description  of  the  kidneys. 

2.  What  is  the  most  important  ingredient  taken  from  the  blood 
by  the  kidneys  ? 

3.  What  does  the  urea  represent? 

4.  Explain  how  exposure  to  cold  affects  the  kidneys. 

5.  Give  some  of  the  effects  of  alcohol  on  the  kidneys. 


156  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

THE    BONES. 

General  Description.  There  are  two  hundred  and  four 
distinct  bones  in  the  body.  This  does  not  include  the 
teeth,  the  patella  or  knee-pan,  and  a  few  other  bony 
structures  occasionally  present.  The  bones  vary  greatly 
in  form ;  some  are  long  and  stout,  as  the  femur ;  others 
are  short  and  small,  as  the  bones  of  the  hand  and  foot. 
Some  are  flat,  as  many  of  the  bones  of  the  skull,  while 
others  are  so  irregular  that  it  would  be  very  difficult  to 
describe  them.  On  closely  examining  one  of  the  larger 
bonesr  eminences  and  depressions  are  seen.  The  emi- 
nences afford  places  for  the  attachment  of  muscles  and 
tendons,  while  the  depressions  afford  passages  for  blood 
vessels,  nerves,  and  tendons. 


A 

FIG.  48.     A  bone  with  the  periosteum  partly  peeled  off. 

The  Periosteum.  A  thin  membrane  called  the  perios- 
teum, surrounds  each  bone.  It  is  composed  of  two  lay- 
ers, an  outer  layer  of  firm  tissue,  which  is  simply  for 


THE   BOSTES. 


157 


support  and  protection,  and  an  inner  layer  of  cells. 
This  inner  layer  is  essential  to  the  life  of  the  bone,  and 
its  cells  are  even  capable  of 
forming  new  bone.  In  cases 
where  it  is  necessary  to  re- 
move a  portion  of  a  bone, 
the  surgeon  avails  himself  of 
this  fact.  He  simply  peels 
back  the  membrane,  removes 
the  injured  bone,  and  thus 
leaves  the  periosteum  to 
make  new  bone. 

The  periosteum  is  well 
supplied  with  blood  vessels, 
some  of  which  pass  directly 
into  the  bone  through  mi- 
nute openings  on  the  surface. 
Many  of  these  openings  can 
be  seen  on  any  bone  from 
which  the  periosteum  has 
been  removed. 

Compact  and  Cancellous  Tis- 
sue. If  one  of  the  long  bones 
of  any  animal  be  sawed 
lengthwise,  it  will  be  found 
to  be  hollow,  except  at  the 
ends.  The  hard,  thick  wall, 
midway  between  the  ends  of 
the  bone,  is  called  the  com- 
pact tissue;  while  the 
spongy,  honey-combed  bone,  forms  tte  shalt- 
occupying  the  center  of  the  ends  of  the  bone  is  called 


FIG.  49.  Longitudinal  section 
of  the  femur.  The  spongy,  or 
cancellous  bone  shows  at  the  ends  ; 
while  the  compact,  hollow  bone 


L58  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 

the  cancellous  tissue.  The  smaller  bones  and  the  flat 
bones  are  not  hollow  ;  they  have  an  outer  layer  of  com- 
pact bone,  within  which  is  the  spongy  bone,  or  cancel- 
lated tissue. 


FIG.  50.  Transverse  section  of  the  femur.  The  section  to  the  left  is  from 
the  shaft ;  to  the  right  is  from  the  head  or  upper  portion  of  the  femur. 

The  Marrow.  The  large  central  cavity  of  the  long 
bones,  and  all  the  spaces  in  the  spongy  bone,  are  filled 
with  a  yellowish  or  reddish  substance,  called  marrow. 
It  consists  principally  of  fat  cells  and  marrow  cells. 
These  marrow  cells  doubtless  give  rise  to  some  of  the 
red  corpuscles  of  the  blood.  There  are  other  sources  of 
origin  for  these  corpuscles,  but  it  is  well  established  that 
some  of  them  originate  in  this  way. 

Microscopic  Structure.  If  a  longitudinal  piece  of  bone 
be  ground  very  thin,  and  then  examined  with  a  micro- 
scope, a  number  of  canals  will  be  seen  parallel  to  the 
long  axis  of  the  bone.  These  canals  unite  with  each 
other,  as  shown  in  Fig.  51,  by  short  branches  extending 
across  nearly  at  right  angles.  A  cross  section  of  bone 
shows  that  these  canals  are  circular  of  oval  in  shape,  as 


THE  BONES. 


159 


illustrated  in  Fig.  52.  These  are  the  Haversian  canals, 
so  called  after  their  discoverer,  Cloptin  Havers.  In  the 
living  bone  all  these  canals  are  filled  with  blood  vessels, 
while  the  frequent  communication  of  the  canals  permits 
the  blood  to  flow  to  all  parts  of  the  bone.  But  the  most 


FIG.  51.     Longitudinal  section  of  bone,  showing  the  Haversian  canals, 
magnified. 

interesting  fact  connected  with  the  structure  of  bone  is 
that  living  cells  are  always  present  in  them. 

The  Bone  Cells.  Between  the  Haversian  canals  there 
are  oblong  spaces,  called  lacunae,  signifying  a  hole  or  a 
lake.  Extending  from  the  lacuna  in  every  direction, 
are  minute  canals,  called  canaliculi.  In  these  irregular- 
shaped  spaces  are  the  bone  cells.  In  Fig.  53  is  a  longi- 
tudinal section  of  bone  showing  these  holes,  with  their 
many-branched  canals  extending  from  them.  Fig.  52  is 
not  so  highly  magnified,  but  it  represents  the  vast  number 
of  these  lacunas,  with  their  canals  leading  from  them. 

The  lacunas  are  very  small,  yet  the  canaliculi  are 
much  smaller,  being  not  over  ziro~5~b  °^  an  mc^  ^n 
diameter.  Yet  in  all  these  there  is  living  matter, 


160 


THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 


the  bone  cells.  These  cells  are  nucleated,  and  are  of 
the  same  shape  as  are  the  spaces  in  which  they  rest. 
Therefore  the  idea  that  bone  is  dead  tissue,  not  subject 
to  change,  must  be  abandoned.  Bone  is  a  living  tissue, 
filled  with  blood  vessels,  nerves,  and  cells,  which  are  as 
much  endowed  with  life  as  are  the  cells  of  other  parts 
of  the  body.  A  framework  of  fibers  extends  throughout 
the  whole  bone,  holding  all  the  parts  in  place. 


FIG.  52.  Transverse  section  of  bone,  not  as  highly  magnified  as 
Fig.  53.  Four  Haversian  canals  (a)  show,  surrounded  by  lacunae  and 
canaliculi. 

Animal  and  Mineral  Matter.  The  parts  just  described 
-  the  blood  vessels,  bone  cells,  marrow,  nerves,  and  the 
framework  of  fibers  —  constitute  the  animal  matter  of 
bone.  But  the  body  must  have  a  strong  support,  some 
kind  of  a  framework  to  which  muscles  can  be  attached, 
and  in  which  the  most  delicate  organs  can  be  protected. 
We  find,  therefore,  that  some  mineral  substance  is  added 


THE   BONES. 


161 


to  the  soft  and  yielding  animal  matter ;  this  makes  the 
whole  tissue  hard  and  unyielding. 

By  remembering  that  fire  will  destroy  animal  matter 
and  that  acids  will  dissolve  mineral  matter,  some  inter- 
esting results  may  be  obtained.  For  instance,  if  a  fresh 


FIG.  53.     Longitudinal  section  of  bone,  highly  magnified, 
the  two  Haversian  canals  are  a  number  of  lacunae  and  canaliculi. 


Between 


bone  be  placed  in  the  fire,  and  subjected  to  heat  for  a 
considerable  time,  all  the  animal  matter  can  be  burned 
out.  The  shape  of  the  bone  will  not  be  changed  ;  it  will 
only  become  lighter  and  whiter.  After  such  treatment 
it  can  be  easily  broken  and  pounded  into  a  fine  powder. 

The  mineral  matter  consists  largely  of  lime.  This  is 
easily  removed  by  soaking  the  bone  in  a  weak  acid  for 
a  few  hours.  The  shape  of  the  bone  will  not  be  changed  ; 
it  will  only  lose  its  hardness,  and  become  easily  bent  in 
any  direction.  All  the  blood  vessels  and  the  bone  cells 
still  remain  in  the  bone. 


162  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

From  these  experiments  we  easily  draw  the  conclu- 
sion that,  if  the  bones  do  not  contain  the  proper  amount 
of  mineral  matter,  they  will  bend,  and  will  be  unable  to 
keep  their  shape,  and  properly  support  the  tissues  around 
them.  If  there  is  a  deficiency  in  the  amount  of  animal 
matter,  the  bones  will  be  too  brittle,  and  liable  to  break 
if  any  extra  strain  be  brought  upon  them; 

Nature  very  wisely  provides  that  in  early  life  there 
should  be  an  excess  of  the  animal  matter  in  bone.  If 
this  were  not  so  the  tumbles  and  falls  which  are  the 
common  lot  of  all  children  at  play,  would  result  in  many 
serious  injuries.  But  the  bones  of  youth  have  such  a 
spring  to  them  that  children  are  not  likely  to  suffer  often 
from  their  fracture.  In  old  age  the  opposite  condition 
exists,  and  there  is  an  excess  of  mineral  matter.  The 
bones  are  very  brittle,  and  are  much  more  easily  broken ; 
a  slight  fall  often  being  sufficient  to  fracture  a  large  bone. 

The  Reproduction  of  Bone.  It  has  already  been  stated 
that  bone  is  a  living  tissue.  Because  of  this,  it  is  capa- 
ble of  being  reproduced  if  only  some  of  the  original  cells 
be  left  undisturbed.  If  the  end  of  a  young  bone  be  re- 
moved it  may  again  be  reproduced  so  that  a  fairly  good 
joint  will  be  formed.  Pieces  of  bone  that  have  been 
broken,  or  sawed  off  will  again  unite  with  the  original 
bone. 

We  have  already  mentioned  that  if  a  portion  of  bone 
be  removed  and  the  periosteum  left,  new  bone  will 
soon  take  its  place.  The  periosteum,  even  when  trans- 
planted to  another  part  of  the  body,  will  give  rise  to 
new  bone.  If  a  large  bone  be  fractured,  the  periosteum 
soon  deposits  a  substance  on  the  broken  ends.  This  is 
ut  first  soft,  and  of  jelly-like  consistence  ;  later  it  be- 


THE   BONES.  163 

comes  more  solid  and  resembles  cartilage  ;  and  still  later 
thin  layers  of  bone  appear,  reuniting  the  broken  ends. 

Strength  of  Bone.  Bone  has  about  three  times  the 
resisting  power  of  ash  wood.  Experiments  have  proven 
that  a  cubic  inch  of  bone  will  support  a  weight  of  5000 
pounds. 

A  Good  Form.  To  have  a  fine,  erect  figure  is  certainly 
desirable.  But  this  cannot  be  secured  it'  certain  laws 
of  nature  be  persistently  broken.  The  body  must  not 
be  distorted  by  improper  dress,  or  by  wrong  methods  of 
walking  or  sitting.  The  figure  is  easily  made  crooked 
by  repeatedly  yielding  to  a  feeling  of  languor,  or  by  sit- 
ting in  a  cramped  and  unnatural  position.  In  standing 
it  is  better  to  rest  the  weight  on  both  feet.  The  habit 
of  resting  the  weight  on  one  and  the  same  foot  is  sure 
to  make  the  hip  bones  grow  out  of  shape  ;  it  will  also 
bend  the  spine,  and  make  it  incline  toward  one  side. 
In  walking,  the  whole  body  should  be  erect,  with  the 
shoulders  well  thrown  back. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  Give  a  general  description  of  the  bones. 

2.  What  is  the  periosteum  ? 

3  Where  is  compact  bone  found?     Where  cancellous ? 

4.  Where  is  the  marrow  found  ?     Of  what  is  it  composed? 

5.  Describe  the  bone  cells. 

6.  What  constitutes  the  animal  matter  of  bone? 

7.  How  does  fire  affect  bone  ? 

8.  How  can  the  mineral  matter  be  removed  ? 

9.  What  conclusion  can  be  drawn  from  these  experiments? 

10.  During  what  period  of  life  do  the  bones  contain  an  excess  eft 
animnl  matter?     When  an  excess  of  mineral  matter? 

11.  How  is  bone  reproduced? 


164  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

THE    SKELETON. 

Object  of  the  Skeleton.  All  the  higher  animals  are 
provided  with  a  skeleton.  This  is  used  either  as  a  sup- 
port, or  framework,  for  the  organs  and  tissues  of  the 
body,  or  as  a  protection  from  injury.  In  some  of  the 
lower  animals  the  skeleton  is  entirely  on  the  outside. 
The  oyster  is  completely  inclosed  in  its  hard  shell,  and 
is  thus  well  protected  against  the  attacks  of  enemies. 
The  lobster  has  an  exterior  skeleton  also,  but  the  parts 
are  so  arranged  that  there  is  considerable  freedom  of 
motion.  The  turtle  not  only  has  an  interior  skeleton, 
but  also  a  large  plate,  or  exterior  skeleton  of  hard  ma- 
terial. This  animal  can  withdraw  his  head  beneath  the 
outer  skeleton,  and  thus  the  whole  body  is  protected 
from  violence. 

The  animals  which  have  exterior  skeletons  do  not 
have  such  freedom  of  motion  as  is  required  by  the 
higher  animals.  Therefore,  in  man,  beasts,  birds,  fishes, 
and  some  other  animals,  the  skeleton  is  entirely  within 
the  body.  It  gives  to  the  body  a  solid  framework,  to 
which  can  be  attached  ligaments  for  holding  the  joints 
together,  and  muscles  for  moving  the  various  parts. 
It  also  makes  a  more  or  less  complete  covering,  or  pro- 
tection, to  many  important  organs.  As  a  protection, 


THE   SKELETON.  165 

the  bones  of  the  skull  furnish  a  perfect  covering  to  the 
delicate  texture  of  the  brain  ;  they  nearly  surround  the 
eye ;  while  the  most  delicate  parts  of  the  ear  are  deeply 
imbedded  in  bony  tissue.  The  ribs,  spinal  column,  and 
sternum  make  a  nearly  complete  covering  for  the  heart 
and  lungs. 

Bones  of  the  Skull  The  skull  is  composed  of  twenty- 
two  bones,  which  are  usually  divided  into  the  bones  of 
the  cranium,  and  the  bones  of  the  face.  The  bones  of 
the  cranium  are  eight  in  number,  and  they  are  so  ar- 
ranged that  they  form  a  solid  and  strong  covering  for 
the  brain.  At  the  base  of  the  brain  is  a  large  opening 
through  which  passes  the  spinal  cord  and  large  blood 
vessels.  The  bones  of  the  face  are  fourteen  in  number  ; 
they  protect  the  organs  of  the  special  senses  of  sight, 
smell,  and  taste,  and  they  also  provide  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  teeth. 

The  skull  rests  upon  the  first  vertebra  and  upon  a 
tooth-like  projection,  or  pivot,  of  the  second.  It  nods,  or 
moves  forward  and  backward,  upon  the  first  vertebra, 
which  remains  stationary.  It  moves  from  side  to  side 
by  the  motion  of  the  first  vertebra  upon  the  second. 
During  this  motion  the  skull  and  the  first  vertebra 
move  together,  the  vertebra  swinging  around  the  pivot, 
which  extends  upward  from  the  vertebra  below  it.  A 
glance  at  Figs.  53,  54,  and  55  will  aid  in  making  this 
clear. 

The  Spinal  Column.  The  spinal  column  consists  of 
twenty-four  small  bones,  —  resembling  those  illustrated 
at  Figs.  56  and  57,  —  and  two  irregular  bones,  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  column.  The  two  irregular  bones, 
at  an  early  period  of  life,  are  composed  of  nine 


166    THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

separate  pieces,  each  representing 
a  vertebra.  Later,  five  of  these 
unite  to  form  one  bone,  and  four  to 
form  another.  These  two  compound 
bones  form  the  back  of  the  pelvic 
cavity. 

A  reference  to  Fig.  54  shows  that 
the  spinal  column  is  not  straight,  but  forms 
a  series  of  curves.  In  the  neck,  and  in 
the  abdomen,  the  convexity  of  the  curves  is 
forward,  while  in  the  chest,  and  in  the  pel- 
vis, it  is  backward.  These  curves  give 
additional  elasticity  to  the  column,  and 
with  the  aid  of  the  elastic  cartilages  give 
great  protection  to  the  brain  from  sudden 
jars. 

Each  bone  in  the  spinal  column  is 
called  a  vertebra,  from  a  Latin  word 
signifying  to  turn,  as  a  joint.  Thus  a 
translation  or  definition  of  the  word 
would  be,  "  a  joint  of  the  spinal  col- 
umn." Each  vertebra  has  within  it 
a  large  opening,  through  which  passes 
the  spinal  cord.  The  vertebras  are 
held  together  by  ligaments,  and  are 
so  placed,  one  directly  over  the  other, 
that  the  central  openings  form  a  con- 
tinuous canal  extending  the  entire 
length  of  the  spinal  column.  This  is 
called  the  spinal  canal ;  it  furnishes  a 

FIG.  54.     The  spinal  column.     The  right  side 
of  the  figure  is  toward  the  back  of  the  Lody. 


THE   SKELETON. 


167 


firm  protection  to  the  spinal  cord.  Between  the  ver- 
tebrae are  discs,  or  cushions,  of  elastic  cartilage.  This 
cartilage  resembles  rubber 
in  its  elasticity.  Its  great 
use  can  be  appreciated 
when  it  is  stated  that 
the  combined  thickness  of 
all  these  cushions  is  over 
six  inches.  They  greatly 
diminish  the  shock  and  jar 
that  comes  to  the  body  from 
jumping  and  running. 

Nearly  all  the  vertebrae 
resemble  those  shown  in 
Figs.  56  and  57.  Fig.  56 
illustrates  a  vertebra  of 


the  neck,  as   viewed  from 


FIG.  55.    Two  vertebrae,  with  the 
elastic  cushion  of  cartilage  between 

above.     The  long  process,    them 
C,  is  the   one   that   is    so 

easily  felt  at  the  back  of  the  neck.  The  darkly  shaded 
oval  portion  at  the  top  of  the  figure,  immediately  in 
front  of  the  opening  for  the  spinal  cord,  is  the  place  of 
attachment  of  the  elastic  cartilage.  Fig.  57  represents 
a  vertebra  lower  down  the  spinal  column,  and  viewed 
from  the  side.  A  represents  the  front  of  the  vertebra, 
and  the  place  where  the  cartilage  is  attached.  The  long 
process,  B,  extends  backward  and  downward,  forming 
a  part  of  the  ridge  which  may  be  felt  extending  down 
the  center  of  the  back. 

The  "  atlas "  is  so  named  because  it  supports  the 
globe  of  the  head.  It  stands  at  the  top  of  the  spinal 
column,  and  differs  in  shape  from  the  other  vertebrae 


168 


THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 


It  has  no  cushion  of  cartilage  to  separate  it  from  the 
bones  above  or  below  it,  neither  has  it  any  long  process. 

There  are  two  places  on 
the  atlas,  however,  which 
are  of  interest ;  they  are 
illustrated  at  3,  Fig.  58. 
On  these  surfaces  the 
base  of  the  skull  rests 
and  moves.  It  has  a 
large  opening  in  its  cen« 
ter,  which  is  divided  into 
two  parts  by  a  strong 

FIG.  56.  The  upper  surface  of  one 
of  the  vertebrae  of  the  neck :  A  is  an 
opening  in  each  side  for  a  blood  vessel ; 
B  is  the  point  on  which  the  bone 
above  it  rests ;  c  is  the  long  process 
that  forms  a  part  of  the  ridge  which 
extends  from  the  back  of  the  spinal 
column. 

opening,  1,  passes  a  bony  pivot,  projecting  up  from  the 
bone  djrectly  beneath. 
The  "  axis  "  is  so 
named  because  it 
forms  the  pivot  upon 
which  the  head  turns 
from  side  to  side.  Its 
most  peculiar  feature 
is  the  strong  bony 
projection,  resembling 


ligament,  illustrated  in 
Fig.  58  by  a  dotted  line. 
Through  the  back  and 
larger  opening,  2,  the 
spinal  cord  passes  ;  while 
through  the  smaller 


a   tooth,   which    rises 

-v     Y     *        f 

perpendicularly     Irom 


One  of  the  vertebrae  viewed 
from  the  side  :  A,  represents  the  body  of 


its    upper     and     front      the  vertebra  ;  B,  the  process. 

part.      When  the  atlas   and   the   axis    are   in  position 


THE   SKELETON. 


169 


they  correspond  with  Fig.  60.  A  study  of  these  last 
three  illustrations  will  make  it  clear  how  the  head 
turns  from  side  to  side  with  the  atlas,  while  the  axis 
is  stationary, — both 
the  head  and  the  atlas 
rotating  on  the  pivot 
of  the  axis.  They  also 
show  how  the  head  can 
bend  forward  and  back- 
ward, while  the  atlas  re- 
mains fixed  and  immov- 

FIG.  58.  The  atlas,  or  the  first 
vertebra,  viewed  from  above :  (1)  the 
process  of  the  axis  ;  (2)  the  opening 
for  the  spinal  cord ;  (3)  the  places  on 
which  the  skull  rests.  The  dotted 
line  represents  a  ligament  which  holds 
the  process,  (1),  in  place. 

of- the  body.     The  ribs  are  so  curved  that  each  makes 
an  elastic  arch  of  bone.     Behind,  the  ribs  are  attached 

to  the  spinal  column.  Tn 
front,  the  first  seven  are  at- 
tached to  the  sternum,  by 
means  of  cartilages.  The 
next  three  are  fastened  to 
each  other  by  cartilages; 
while  the  last  two  have  no 
FIG.  59.  The  axis,  or  the  sec-  attachment  in  front,  hence 

ond   vertebra,    viewed   from   the     they    are   Called    the    floating 

ribs. 

The  Thoracic   Cavity.      The 
thoracic  cavity  is  inclosed  by 
the  spinal  column  behind?  the  ste.rnum  in  front,  the  ribs 


able  upon  the  axis.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  curious 
and  wonderful  mechan- 
isms of  the  body. 

The   Ribs.      There   are 
twelve  ribs  on  each  side 


side  :  (1)  the  process  on  which 
the  atlas  turns  seen  also  at  1, 
(Figs.  58,  and  60)  ;  (2)  the  place 
on  which  the  atlas  rests. 


170  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

on  the  sides,  and  the  diaphragm  below.  The  spaces  be- 
tween the  ribs  are  filled  in  with  muscular  tissue,  so  that 
surrounding  the  thoracic  cavity  there  is  a  complete  wall, 
formed  partly  of  bone  and  partly  of  muscle.  All  that  part 


FIG.  60.  The  atlas  and  axis  in  position,  front  view  :  (1)  the  tooth- 
like  process  of  the  axis,  showing  above  the  atlas ;  (2)  the  axis  ;  (3)  the 
atlas. 

of  Fig.  43  which  is  above  the  diaphragm,  6,  represents 
the  thorax,  or  chest,  with  its  contents  in  place.  In  this 
cavity  are  the  lungs,  heart,  and  large  blood  vessels. 

T*he  Upper  Extremities.  There  are  five  large  bones 
and  several  small  ones  that  belong  to  the  upper  ex- 
tremity. The  clavicle,  or  collar  bone,  extends  from  the 
front  of  the  shoulder  to  the  top  of  the  sternum  ;  it  keeps 
the  shoulder. joint  outward  and  backward.  The  scapula, 
or  shoulder  blade,  forms  the  back  part  of  the  shoulder, 
and  is  between  the  shoulder  joint  and  the  spine  ;  at  its 
upper  and  outer  part  is  a  cavity,  or  socket,  for  the  re- 
ception of  the  head  of  the  humerus.  The  humerus,  or 
arm  bone,  extends  from  the  shoulder  to  the  elbow.  Its 
head  is  round,  forming  a  ball  for  the  ball-and-socket 
joint  at  the  shoulder ;  the  lower  end  is  flattened  and 
grooved,  to  make  the  hinge  joint  of  the  elbow.  The 
radius  and  ulna  are  the  two  bones  of  the  forearm. 


THE   SKELETON. 


171 


The  ulna  forms  the  hinge  joint  at  the  elbow  with  the 
humerus,  while  the  radius  forms  the  upper  part  of  the 
wrist  joint.  The  radius  and  ulna  are  placed  side  by 
side,  and  are  so  arranged  that  the  radius  can  move 


FIG.  61.  Front  view  of  the  sternum  and  parts  attached  to  it ;  (A,  B,  c) 
the  three  portions  of  the  sternum  ;  (1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7)  the  cartilages 
which  unite  the  first  seven  ribs  directly  to  the  sternum  ;  (8,  9,  10)  the 
cartilages  which  unite  the  eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth  ribs  indirectly  to  the 
sternum.  To  the  right  of  the  Fig.  only  the  cartilages  are  shown  ;  to 
the  left,  the  ends  of  the  ribs  are  shown  also. 

partly  around  the  ulna,  giving  the  hand  the  power 
of  rotation,  or  turning.  The  radius  is  on  the  side  of 
the  arm  corresponding  with  the  thumb.  The  remain- 
ing bones  of  the  upper  extremity  form  the  hand,  and 
by  their  arrangement  allow  a  great  variety  of  move- 
ments. 


172 


THE   ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 


The  Pelvis.  The  pelvis  is  inclosed,  on  the  back,  by 
the  two  lower  bones  of  the  spinal  column ;  on  the 
sides,  by  the  large  hip  bones ;  and 
in  front,  by  the  pubic  bones.  The 
curved  shape  of  the  upper  edge 
of  the  hip  bones  gives  a  strong 
support  for  the  abdominal 
organs.  The  sides  furnish  a 
means  of  attachment  for  the 
lower  extremities,  while  the  back 
gives  attachment  to  the  spinal 
column. 

The  Lower  Extremities,  The 
bones  of  the  lower  extremity  are 
much  like  those  of  the  upper. 
The  femur,  or  thigh  bone,  is  the 
longest,  largest,  and  strongest 
bone  in  the  body.  Its  head  is 
ball  shaped  to  form  the  ball-and- 
socket  joint  with  the  bones  of  the 
pelvis.  Near  the  head  is  a  rough- 
ened mass  of  bone,  to  which  mus- 
cles are  attached.  The  lower  end 
of  the  bone  is  flattened,  to  form, 
with  the  tibia,  the  hinge  joint  of 
the  knee.  The  tibia  and  fibula 
are  the  two  bones  which  form  the 
leg.  They  are  placed  side  by  side, 
but  are  not  movable  as  are  the 
bones  of  the  forearm.  The  front 
of  the  tibia  forms  the  sharp  ridge 
felt  in  the  front  of  the  leg,  while  the  fibula  forms  the  out- 


I 


FIG.  62.     The  femur. 


THE   SKELETON. 


173 


side  of  the  leg.     The  patella,  or  knee  pan,  protects  the 
knee  in  front. 

Bones  of  the  Foot.  The  bones  of  the  foot  are  so  united 
that  they  form  an  arch,  of  which  only  the  front  and  the 
back  touch  the  ground. 
This  arch  is  useful  in 
protecting  the  body 
from  severe  shocks,  as 
in  the  act  of  running  or 
jumping;  for  it  is  evi- 
dent that  when  the  FlG>  63>  side  view  of  the  bones  of 

weight    of    the   body   is     the  foot,  naturally  arranged  in  the  form 

thrown  upon  the  arch,    of  an  arch- 

its   center    is    pressed    downward,   thus    acting    as    a 

spriner. 

The  Joints,  Whenever  bones  form  a 
joint  they  are  covered  with  a  layer  of 
highly  polished  cartilage.  This  gives 
some  slight  elasticity,  and  also  reduces 
the  friction.  Covering  the  cartilage  is  a 
very  thin  membrane  which  is  constantly 
secreting,  or  pouring  out,  a  watery  fluid, 
called  the  synovial  fluid,  or  joint  water. 
It  serves  the  same  purpose  as  does  oil 
to  the  wheels  and  joints  of  machinery. 

The  Ligaments.  The  bones  are  held  to- 
gether at  the  joints  by  bands  of  tissue, 
called  ligaments.  These  are  very  dense 
and  strong,  and  capable  of  withstanding 


Fig.  64.  A  longitudinal  section  through  a  joint, 
showing  a  layer  of  cartilage  over  the  end  of  each  bone  : 
(1)  the  ends  of  the  bones  ;  (2)  the  layers  of  cartilage. 


174 


THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 


great  strain  without  injury.  Fig.  65  shows  how  firml) 
and  completely  the  shoulder  joint  is  covered  with  these 
ligaments.  Fig.  66  illustrates  how  the  head  of  the  fe- 
mur is  buried  in  the  socket  prepared  for  it ;  while  Fig. 

67  illustrates  the  hip 
joint  after  the  outer 
ligaments  have  been 
removed,  and  the  bone 
pulled  partly  out  of  its 
socket.  A  strong  liga- 
ment still  remains, 
holding  the  head  of  the 
femur  to  the  center  of 
the  socket. 

Sometimes  the  liga- 
ments are  unduly 
stretched,  or  slightly 
torn,  as  when  the  wrist 
or  ankle  is  sprained. 
Such  an  injury  usually 
causes  great  pain,  and 
recovery  is  slow.  The 
ligaments  may  be  so 
broken  or  torn  that  the 
bones  slip  out  of  their 
proper  places.  The  bone 
is  then  said  to  be  "  out 
of  joint,"  or  dislocated.  In  a  few  healthy  persons  the 
ligaments  are  very  loose,  so  that,  by  the  action  of  the 
muscles  alone,  some  of  the  joints  can  be  dislocated  at 
will.  Such  persons  are  said  to  have  loose  joints. 

Varieties  of  Joints.     Joints  may  be  either  movable,  im- 


FIG.  65.  Front  view  of  the  bones  of 
the  shoulder  :  (1)  the  clavicle  ;  (2)  a 
process  which  extends  from  the  back  of 
the  scapula,  and  which  can  be  felt  as  a 
prominence  on  the  back  of  the  shoulder  ; 
(3)  the  scapula  ;  (4)  the  humerus.  The 
joint  is  enclosed  by  ligaments. 


THE   SKELETON. 


175 


perfect,  or  immov- 
able. The  movable 
joints  vary  exceed- 
ingly in  the  degree  of 
their  mobility.  The 
opposing  bony  sur- 
faces move  upon  one 
another,  and  the  ex- 
tent of  the  motion 
is  only  limited  by 
the  structure  of  that 
The  imperfect  joints 
are  such  as  are  found  in  the  spinal 

FIG.  66.  A  section  through  the  hip  joint,  illus- 
trating the  head  of  the  femur  resting  in  a  socket,  and 
thus  forming  a  ball-and-socket  joint. 


FIG.  67.  The  hip  joint,  opened.  All  the 
ligaments  have  been  removed  except  the  one 
which  holds  the  head  of  the  femur  to  the 
bottom  of  the  socket. 


176 


THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 


column.  There  is  some  slight  motion  between  the  ver- 
tebrae, due  to  the  elasticity  of  the  thick  plates  of  car- 
tilage. It  is  the  same  motion  that  can  be  made  after 

cementing  a  thick 
plate  of  rubber  be- 
tween two  blocks  of 
wood.  The  elasticity 
of  the  rubber  would 
allow  a  certain  free- 
dom of  motion  and 
yet  the  parts  would 
not  move  upon  one 
another.  Examples  of 
the  immovable  joints 
are  seen  in  the  union 
of  the  bones  of  the 
skull.  The  edges  of 
the  bones  are  so  fitted 

FIG.  68.     The  upper   surface  of  the  .    .  ,         .,          .. 

skull,  showing  the  sutures,  or  imroova-  lntO    6ach    °ther  that 

ble  joints.  -  they  form  an  unyield- 

ing joint,  or  suture. 

The  Ball-and-Socket  Joint.  In  the  ball-and-socket  joint, 
the  head  of  one  bone,  which  is  more  or  less  round  like 
a  ball,  plays  in  the  socket,  or  depression,  of  another 
bone.  The  bone  with  the  round  head  can  move  in  any 
direction,  only  the  extent  of  its  motion  will  depend  upon 
the  shape  of  the  socket.  If  the  socket  be  deep  and 
small,  as  in  the  hip,  the  motion  will  be  limited,  but  if 
the  socket  be  shallow  and  broad,  as  in  the  shoulder, 
then  the  motion  will  be  free  in  every  direction. 

Hinge  Joints.  The  movements  of  the  hinge  joints  are 
compared  to  those  of  a  door.  The  elbow  is  the  host 


THE   SKELETON.  177 

example  of  a  hinge  joint.     The  movement  is  limited,  for 
while  the  arm  can  be  bent  forward  and  then  straight- 


FIG.  69.    The  scapula  and  humerus  in  proper  position  to  form  the  ball- 
and-socket  joint  of  the  shoulder. 

ened,  yet   it   cannot   be  bent  backward.     The  knee  is 
another  example  of  this  joint. 


FIG.  70.  A  section  through  the  elbow  joint :  H,  the  humerus  ;  u,  the 
ulna  ;  p,  the  process,  which  prevents  the  arm  from  moving  back  of  a  cer- 
tain line. 

Pivot  Joints.  The  rotary  motions  of  the  head,  by 
which  the  skull  and  the  atlas  turn  upon  the  pivot  of  the 
axis,  furnish  an  illustration  of  a  pivot  joint. 

12 


178  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF  HEALTH. 


SUGGESTIONS   TO   TEACHERS. 

1.  The  Marrow  of  Bone.     Cut  a  *trans verse  section  of  a 
fresh  bone  ;  the  bone  in  a  round  steak  answers  well.     The 
oily  matter,  within  the  bone,  is  the  marrow. 

2.  The  Periosteum.     Cut  down  on  any  fresh  bone  and 
peel    off    the    membrane    surrounding    it.      This    is    the 
periosteum. 

3.  The  Mineral  Matter.     Burn  a  bone  in  the  stove.    The 
heat   soon  destroys  the  animal  matter,  leaving   only   the 
mineral.     A  burned  bone  is  easily  broken  and  pulverized 
with  a  hammer. 

4.  The  Animal  Matter.     Place  one  of  the  long  bones  of 
a  small  animal,  as  the  rib  of  a  chicken,  in   a  weak  acid 
solution,  —  nitric  acid,  one  part ;  water,  four  or  five  parts. 
In  a  few  days  pour  off  the  acid,  and   place  in  water  to 
wash  out  any  remaining  acid.     If  the  bone  has  been  in  the 
acid  long  enough  it  can  be  bent  and  even  tied  in  a  knot. 
The   acid   has   removed   the   mineral   matter ;  the   animal 
substance  remains. 

5.  Spongy  Bone.      Saw  any  old  dry   bone  lengthwise; 
especially   the   ends   of   any   of   the   long  bones.     Notice 
the  fine,  honey-combed,  spongy   bone   in   the  ends  of  the 
bones ;  while  the  body  of  the  bone,  between  the  ends,  is 
hollow. 

6.  Entrance  of  Blood  Vessels.     Minute  openings  can  be 
seen  on  the  surface  of  any  dried  bone,  as  picked  up  in  the 
field.     Through  these  openings   the  blood  vessels  entered 
the  bone,  dividing  again  and  again  until  small  enough  to 
enter  the  narrowest  Haversian  canal. 


SUGGESTIONS   TO   TEACHERS.  179 

7.  Ligaments.     Any  joint  can  be  procured  at  the  market 
and  the  outer  layer  of  tissue  removed.     Still  the  joint  is 
out  of  sight,  covered  with  the  hard,  tough  ligaments. 

8.  Synovial  Fluid.     If  the  joint  be  from  a  recently  killed 
animal,  when  the  knife  cuts  through  the  ligaments,  a  few 
drops  of  a  watery  substance  escape.    This  is  the  lubricating 
synovial  fluid. 

9.  Joints.     With  a  saw  divide  the  joint  longitudinally, 
as  represented  in  Figs.  66  and  70.     Notice  the  working  of 
the  joint,  the  smooth  articulating  surfaces,  and  the  great 
strength  of  the  ligaments. 

10.  Cartilage  at  the  Joints.     In    the    last    preparation, 
notice  the  cartilage  covering  the  ends  of  the  bones.     Sepa- 
rate the  joint  completely  and  cut  the  cartilage  with  a  knife. 
Notice  the  depth  of  the  layer,  and  its  shining,  highly  pol- 
ished character. 

11.  Cartilage  between  the  Vertebrae.     Procure  two   ad- 
joining vertebrae   and  cut   them   likewise.    •  Examine  the 
intervening  cartilage.      It   appears   elastic   when   pressed. 
It  does  not  cut  easily  with  a  knife.     This  is  not  the  same 
kind  of  cartilage  as  found  at  the  joints. 

12.  Connective  Tissue.     When   examining   any   piece  of 
fresh  meat,  especially  the  outer  part,  soon  after  the  skin  is 
removed,  a  whitish  tissue  is  seen.     This  can  be  pulled  and 
stretched  easily,  with  a  pair  of  forceps.     It  is  the  tissue 
which  holds,  or  connects  the  skin  to  the  muscles  and  tissues 
beneath  it.      Connective  tissue  holds  many  of  the  tissues 
together  and  unites  one  kind  of  tissue  with  another.     It  is 
seen  between  the  muscles,  surrounding  blood  vessels,  and 
forming  the  tendons  to  muscles.     It  is  very  generally  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  body! 


180  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 


CHAPTER   XVII. 

THE   MUSCLES. 

General  Description.  The  great  bulk  of  the  body,  ex- 
ternal to  the  skeleton,  is  composed  of  muscles.  The 
muscles  give  the  general  outline  to  the  body  and  make 
nearly  one  half  its  total  weight.  Nearly  all  the  muscles 
are  arranged  in  pairs,  so  that  the  two  sides  of  the  body 
are  almost  alike.  Some  of  the  muscles  are  very  small, 
as  the  minute  muscles  of  the  middle  ear,  while  others 
reach  from  the  hip  to  the  knee.  They  are  of  a  deep  red 
color  in  the  majority  of  animals,  forming  the  lean  meat 
or  flesh.  In  many  of  the  fishes,  and  in  some  of  the  birds 
the  muscles  are  white,  or  of  a  light  yellow  color. 

Two  Kinds  of  Muscle.  The  muscles  are,  in  respect  to 
their  function,  divided  into  two  classes;  the  voluntary, 
and  the  involuntary.  The  voluntary  muscles  are  so- 
called  because  their  movements  are  under  the  control  of 
the  will.  Such  muscles  can  be  used  whenever  we  wish 
or  will  to  use  them,  as  the  muscles  of  the  face  or  the 
arm.  Others  cannot  be  controlled  in  this  way ;  they  do 
their  work  independent  of  any  action  of  the  will,  hence 
they  are  called  involuntary.  The  muscles  of  the  stom- 
ach and  the  heart  are  of  this  variety.  The  heart  beats, 
the  stomach  contracts,  and  we  are  powerless  to  stop 
their  action.  As  a  rule,  all  those  movements  in  the 


THE   MUSCLES. 


181 


body  most  essential  to  life  are  not  under  the  control  of 
the  will.  Yet  many  of  the  involuntary  muscles  can  be 
controlled,  although  for  a  short  time  only.  An  illus- 
tration of  this  is  found  in 
ordinary  breathing.  We 
breathe  a  certain  number  of 
times  a  minute  and  are  entirely 
unconscious  of  it ;  still  by  an 
effort  of  the  will,  we  can 
breathe  faster,  slower,  or 
deeper.  Even  the  voluntary 
muscles  can  be  made  to  con- 
tract by  a  sharp  blow,  or  by 
some  fright.  While  voluntary 
muscles,  therefore,  are  con- 
trolled by  the  will,  they  are 
not  in  variably  0  so  controlled. 
Nearly  all  the  voluntary  mus- 
cles are  attached  to  bone  at 
each  end  ;  while  the  mvolun-  FlG.  7L  Voluntary  muscle, 
tary  are  not  attached  to  the  with  its  blood  vessels  -.  (i)  the 
skeleton,  but  are  found  in  the  muscle  fibe.rs  *  (2)  the  blood  ves- 
walls  of  hollow  organs,  as  the 
stomach  and  intestines,  and  in  the  walls  of  the  arteries. 

The  Uses  of  Muscle.  The  muscles  are  primarily  the 
organs  of  motion.  They  act  as  a  protection  to  the 
blood  vessels  and  nerves ;  they  inclose  the  large  tho- 
racic and  abdominal  cavities ;  they  serve  as  cushions 
to  diminish  the  force  of  falls  and  blows ;  they  fill  up 
irregularities,  and  thus  add  to  the  symmetry  of  the 
whole  body. 

Structure  of  Voluntary  Muscle.     Tf  a  piece  of  lean  meat, 


182 


THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 


which  is  voluntary  muscle,  be  boiled,  it  will  appear  as  if 
ready  to  fall  apart  into  little  bundles  of  tissue.  These 
bundles  may  be  easily  divided  into 
still  smaller  ones,  by  separating 
them  carefully  with  needles.  In  this 
way  minute  threads  of  tissue  are  ob- 
tained. If  one  of  these  be  ex- 
amined with  a  microscope  it  will 
be  found  to  consist  of  many  smaller 
threads,  called  muscular  fibers.  In 
Fig.  71,  four  of  these  fibers  are 
seen  side  by  side,  with  their  ac- 
companying blood  vessels.  In  this 
figure  and  also  in  Fig.  72,  fine 
lines  are  noticed  running  directly 
across  each  fiber.  Because  of  these 
markings  this  variety  of  muscle 
has  been  called  striated  muscle. 
On  examining  any  piece  of  lean  meat  the  bundles  are 
seen  as  strings  of  red  flesh,  with  white  connective  tis- 


FIG.  72.  A  muscular 
fiber,  showing  the  nuclei, 
magnified. 


Fio.  73.  The  capillary  blood  vessels  of  muscle,  magnified.  The  draw- 
ing is  made  from  the  same  specimen  as  Fig.  71,  only  the  muscular  fibers 
are  not  shown. 


THE   MUSCLES. 


183 


sue  between  them.  Boiling  the  meat  dissolves  this  con- 
nective tissue  to  a  certain  extent,  so  that  the  bundles  of 
fibers  more  readily  fall  apart. 

Structure  of  Involuntary 
Muscle,  Involuntary  mus- 
cle is  quite  simple  in  its 
structure.  In  consists  of  a 
number  of  spindle-shaped 
cells,  held  together  by  a 
cement.  This  cement  sub- 
stance is  found  throughout 
the  body.  It  is  of  the  na- 
ture of  glue,  or  cement,  and 
it  firmly  holds  many  of  the 
cells  of  the  body  together. 
Fig.  74,  represents  some  in- 
voluntary muscle  which  has 
been  treated  with  dilute  acid.  The  acid  has  dissolved 
the  cement,  and  the  cells  are  seen  well  separated  from 
each  other.  These  cells  are  very  minute,  and  a  high 
power  of  the  microscope  is  required  to  see  them. 

The  Tendons.  The  voluntary  muscles  are  sometimes 
attached  directly  to  the  skin  and  to  other  soft  tissues; 
but  the  great  majority  are  connected  to  the  bones  by 
firm,  white  cords.  These  white,  shining  cords  are 
called  tendons.  The  tendons  have  no  power  of  them- 
selves to  contract.  They  simply  serve  the  purpose  of 
cords,  connecting  the  working  part,  of  the  muscle  with 
the  part  which  it  has  to  move.  The  parts  acted  upon 
rnay  be  removed  a  considerable  distance  from  the  body 
of  the  muscle ;  thus,  the  ends  of  the  fingers  are  moved 
by  the  muscles  of  the  forearm.  The  tendons  serve 


FIG.  74.    The  cells  of  involuntary 
muscle,  magnified. 


184 


THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 


/mother  purpose :  owing  to  their  compact  nature  they 
occupy  much  less  room  than  do  the  muscles,  and  thus 
the  size  of  the  wrist  and  ankle  is  much  reduced.  Were 
it  not  for  this  fact  these  joints  would  be  covered  with 
thick  muscle,  and  it  would  be  quite  impossible  to  have 
the  necessary  freedom  of  motion.  The  tendons  can  be 
easily  felt  at  the  wrist,  while  the  one  attached  to  the 
thumb  is  easily  seen  on  the  back  of  the  hand.  The 
largest  tendon  in  the  body  connects  certain  muscles  on 
the  back  of  the  leg  with  the  heel.  Its  attachment  is 
shown  at  T,  in  Fig.  63.  It  is  called 
the  "  tendo  Achilles,"  from  the 
Grecian  fiction  that  it  was  at  this 
point  that  Achilles  received  his 
death  vround,  as  there  was  no 
other  portion  of  his  body  that 
could  be  wounded. 

Fig.  75  illustrates  the  muscles 
of  the  forearm,  and  their  tendons. 
The  tendons  are  held  tightly  down 
at  the  wrist  by  firm  bands  of  tissue. 
Some  of  the  tendons  extend  to  the 
very  ends  of  the  fingers,  so  that 
when  the  muscles  of  the  forearm 
contract,  they  move  the  most  dis- 
tant parts  of  the  hand.  The  ten- 
dons are  inclosed  in  sheaths, 
through  which  they  easily  glide. 

Muscular  Contraction.  By  placing 
the  fingers  of  one  hand  upon  the  fleshy  part  of  the 
other  hand  at  the  base  of  the  thumb  (the  ball  of  the 
thumb),  the  tissue  will  feel  soft  and  comparatively 


FIG.  75.  The  muscles 
of  the  arm,  ending  in  the 
white  tendons  at  the  wrist. 


THE  MUSCLES.  185 

thin.  This  tissue  consists  of  voluntary  muscle  and  can 
be  made  to  contract  by  an  effort  of  the  will.  With 
the  fingers  still  in  the  position  indicated,  place  the 
thumb  on  the  end  of  the  little  finger ;  the  muscle  now 
feels  thick  and  hard.  From  this  we  conclude  that  when 
a  muscle  contracts  it  becomes  thicker  and  harder.  We 
know  a  muscle  shortens  when  it  contracts,  because  it 
moves  the  parts  to  which  it  is  attached. 


FIG.  76.    A,  a  muscle  relaxed,  before  it  contracts  :  B,  the  same  muscle, 
contracted  ;  it  is  shorter  and  thicker. 

A  slight  study  of  Figs.  77  and  78  will  illustrate  the 
principle  upon  which  all  voluntary  muscles  act.  K 
the  muscles  on  the  front  of  the  arm  should  shorten, 
the  hand  would  be  raised ;  while  if  the  opposing  mus- 
cles, on  the  back  of  the  arm,  should  shorten,  the  hand 
would  be  drawn  down  again.  If  the  muscles  on  the 
front  of  the  leg  should  shorten,  the  toes  would  be 
raised ;  while  the  opposing  muscles  would  raise  the 
heel.  Thus  we  learn  that  when  a  muscle  contracts  it 
becomes  thicker,  harder,  and  shorter ;  and  that  all  the 
movements  of  the  body  are  caused  by  such  contractions. 

In  the  case  of  the  involuntary  muscles,  the  individual 
spindle-shaped  cells  contract.  If  the  cells  be  arranged 
in  a  circular  manner,  as  around  the  arteries,  then  their 
contraction  will  diminish  the  size  of  the  vessel.  For  the 
same  reason,  if  the  muscular  cells  that  form  the  walls  of 


186 


THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 


the  stomach  contract,  they  will  diminish  the  size  of  the 
cavity,  and  will  force  out  its  contents. 

But  a  muscle  cannot   remain    in  a  state  of  contrac- 
tion for  any  great  length  of  time.     It  soon  tires  and  is 


Diagrams  illustrating  the  action  of  muscles. 

Flo.  77.  Muscles  of  the  arm  :  s,  the  shoulder ;  E,  the  elbow ;  H,  the 
hand  ;  ra,  muscles.  FIG.  78.  Muscles  of  the  leg. 

obliged  to  relax.  After  a  short  rest,  however,  it  is  again 
ready  for  work.  All  muscles  must  have  rest  or  thev 
will  soon  wear  out.  We  learned  on  page  110  that  even 
the  most  active  of  muscles,  the  heart,  has  a  brief  period 
of  rest  between  its  beats. 

Strength  of  Muscles.  The  labor  expended  by  the  heart 
each  day,  as  given  on  page  110,  is  an  illustration  of  the 
strength  of  this  muscle.  It  is  again  illustrated,  page  117, 
by  its  power  to  send  the  blood  on  its  complete  round  of  the 
circulation.  Muscles  can  be  developed,  as  in  athletes, 
until  hundreds  of  pounds  can  be  lifted  with  ease. 


THE  MUSCLES.  187 

Harmony  in  Muscular  Action.  The  muscles  which  bend, 
or  flex,  the  joints  are  called  the  flexors;  while  those 
whicli  bring  the  bent  parts  back  again,  are  called  the 
extensors.  Examples  of  the  former  are  those  muscles 
on  the  front  of  the  arm  which  bend  the  forearm  ;  while 
examples  of  the  latter  are  those  on  the  back  of  the  arm 
which  pull  the  bent  arm  straight  again. 

From  this  description  it  is  evident  that  opposing  mus- 
cles must  not  act  at  the  same  time ;  for  if  the  flexors 
and  extensors  should  equally  contract,  and  pull  upon 
the  parts  to  which  they  are  attached,  there  would  be 
no  motion  whatever.  To  give  free  motion  to  a  part,  the 
opposing  muscles  must  be  finely  adjusted  to  each  other. 
In  cases  of  spasms,  or  convulsions,  the  muscles  do  not 
act  in  harmony,  and  the  body  becomes  stiff  and  rigid. 

The  delicacy  of  the  adjustment  of  muscular  action  is 
well  illustrated  in  the  muscles  of  the  face.  Often  the 
expressions  of  the  face  tell  more  than  do  uttered  words. 
An  unconscious  contraction  of  a  muscle,  be  it  ever  so 
slight,  may  convey,  to  the  close  observer,  pain  or  pleas- 
ure. A  slight  contraction  of  a  muscle  lifts  the  brow,  and 
a  smile  covers  the  face  ;  while  a  change  in  another  mus- 
cle is  followed  with  a  picture  of  suffering  and  pain.  As 
a  general  rule,  each  muscle  has  a  distinct  motion  to  per- 
form. It  is  also  true  that  any  one  motion  is  usually 
brought  about  by  the  combined  action  of  several  mus- 
cles. The  infinite  variety  of  tones  that  can  be  produced 
by  the  human  voice  is  due  to  the  position  and  tension  of 
the  vocal  cords,  and  these  are  controlled  by  muscular 
action. 

The  Control  of  the  Muscles.  All  the  muscles  are  under 
the  control  of  the  nervous  system.  The  nerves  serve  as 


188  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF  HEALTH. 

a  connecting  medium  between  the  brain  and  the  spinal 
cord,  and  the  distant  muscles.  The  nerve  force  is  sent 
i'rom  the  brain,  or  spinal  cord,  down  the  nerve  fibers  to 
the  distant  muscles  stimulating  them  to  contract.  If 
this  connection  be  broken,  there  will  be  no  muscular 
action.  It  is  possible,  however,  to  make  a  muscle  con- 
tract under  such  a  condition,  by  applying  the  proper 
kind  of  force  from  without. 

Electricity  might  make  a  muscle  contract  when  it  had 
no  connection  with  the  brain  or  spinal  cord.  It  is  even 
possible  to  make  a  muscle  contract,  after  it  has  been 
removed  from  the  body,  by  striking  it  a  sharp  blow  or  by 
applying  the  electric  current.  But  no  force  originating 
within  the  nerve  centers  can  reach  the  muscles,  unless 
the  nerves  leading  to  them  be  intact. 

Growth  of  Muscles.  Muscles  develop  and  grow  under 
the  general  law  of  cells,  as  given  on  page  13.  The 
involuntary  muscle  cells,  Fig.  74,  divide  by  cell  division, 
and  each  cell  then  increases  in  size  until  it  reaches  certain 
dimensions.  The  voluntary  muscle  fibres,  Fig.  72,  begin 
as  minute  oval  or  circular  cells,  which  gradually  develop 
into  a  complete  fibre  with  its  characteristic  markings. 

Standing.  The  ordinary  act  of  standing,  like  so  many 
simple  acts,  is  a  result  of  the  most  varied  and  compli- 
cated conditions.  Many  opposite,  or  antagonistic,  sets 
of  muscles  contract  and  thus  keep  the  joints  rigid.  The 
flexors  and  extensors  must  equally  contract ;  for  if  one 
set  should  contract  with  more  power  than  the  other,  the 
body  would  surely  fall.  The  young  child  finds  great 
difficulty  in  standing  alone. 


QUESTIONS.  189 


QUESTIONS    FOR   CHAPTER   XVI. 

1.  What  purposes  are  served  by  the  skeleton  ?     Compare. 

2.  How  many  bones  of  the  skull  ?     How  divided  ? 

3.  Describe  one  of  the  vertebrae. 

4.  Where  is  the  atlas  ?     What  passes  through  its  openings  ? 

5.  Where  is  the  axis?     Its  peculiar  feature? 

6.  How  many  ribs  are  there?     How  attached  to  the  sternum  V 

7.  Describe  the  bones  of  the  upper  extremity. 

8.  Describe  those  of  the  lower  extremity. 

9.  Of  what  use  is  the  arch  of  the  foot  ? 

10.  How  are  the  joints  kept  moist? 

11.  Of  what  use  are  ligaments ?     Injuries  to  them  cause  what? 

12.  Name  the  varieties  of  joints.     Illustrate. 

13.  Where  can  each  variety  be  found  ? 


QUESTIONS    FOR   CHAPTER    XVII. 

1.  Give  a  general  description  of  the  muscles. 

2.  Name  the  varieties  of  muscle.     Why  so  called? 

3.  Give  examples  of  each  variety. 

4.  Give  some  of  the  uses  of  muscle. 

5.  Of  what  is  voluntary  muscle  composed? 

6.  Describe  the  structure  of  involuntary  muscle. 

7.  Where  are  tendons  found  ? 

8.  Of  what  use  are  they  ? 

9.  How  illustrate  the  contraction  of  muscles  of  the  thumb? 

10.  This  experiment  shows  what  ? 

1 1.  Why  is  it  tiresome  to  stand  long  in  one  position  ? 

12.  How  do  we  know  a  muscle  shortens  when  it  contracts? 

13.  Do  all  muscles  require  rest?     Why? 

14.  What  muscles  are  flexors ?     Extensors?     Give  examples. 

15.  The  muscles  are  controlled  by  what? 

16.  What  relation  do  the  muscles  bear  to  the  nerves  ? 


190  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 


SUGGESTIONS   TO   TEACHERS. 

1.  Voluntary  Muscle.     Any  lean  meat  represents  volun« 
tary  muscle.     Notice  the  bundles  of  fibers,  and  the  white 
connective    tissue    extending     around    and    through    the 
muscle. 

2.  Tendon.     A  tendon  is  easily  procured  at  the  market, 
Notice  how  hard  and  unyielding  it  is.     The  muscles  on  the 
leg  of  a  fowl  show  the  tendons  well. 

3.  Action  of  Voluntary  Muscle.     To  illustrate  the  action 
of  voluntary  muscle,  attached  to  bone,  follow  the  directions 
on  page  185,  under  the  heading  of  "muscular  contraction.'' 
For  voluntary  muscle  not  attached  to  bone,  have  the  pupil 
pronounce   the   letter   U ;    the  voluntary  muscle   forming 
the  fleshy   part   of  the  lips  contracts.     Follow  this  with 
the  pronunciation  of  the  letter  Y,  and  the  former  muscles 
will  relax. 

4.  Involuntary  Muscle.     The   heart   furnishes   the   best 
illustration  of  an  involuntary  muscle. 

5.  Muscular  Fibers.     Boiled  corned  beef  shows  the  mus- 
cle, as  if  ready  to  separate  into   small   bundles.     Needles 
will  tear  the  bundles  into  finer  ones,  while  the  microscope 
will  show  the  smallest  bundles  composed  of  minute  fibers. 

6.  Expression.     A  variety  of  experiments  can  be   made 
to  illustrate  the  fact  that  the  various  expressions  of  the 
face,  as  fear,  courage,  grief,  joy,  pleasure,  displeasure,  etc., 
are  caused  by  the  contraction  of  muscles. 


EXERCISE.  191 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

EXERCISE. 

The  Necessity  of  Exercise.  The  blacksmith  always  has 
large  arms,  and  the  arm  he  uses  the  most  will  be  the 
larger.  This  has  been  brought  about  by  long  and  con- 
stant exercise  of  the  muscles.  It  is  only  an  instance 
showing  that  the  exercise  of  a  muscle  makes  it  larger, 
harder,  and  stronger.  If,  for  any  reason,  a  person  should 
be  unable  to  use  the  arm  for  a  few  months,  it  would 
gradually  become  smaller  and  smaller ;  and  if  left 
unused  long  enough  the  muscles  would  nearly  all  dis- 
appear. This  is  illustrated  in  the  following  case  :  The 
arm  of  a  young  man  had  become  completely  paralyzed 
as  a  result  of  an  injury,  and  so  could  not  be  used.  All 
forms  of  medical  treatment  failed  to  restore  any  power 
of  contraction  to  the  muscles.  In  three  years  after  the 
injury  the  person  died  of  some  acute  trouble.  A  care- 
ful examination  was  made  to  find  the  muscles  of  the 
paralyzed  arm.  They  had  nearly  all  disappeared,  but 
the  small  portions  that  remained  were  examined  with 
the  microscope.  In  place  of  the  regular  muscular 
fibers  there  were  fibers  nearly  turned  to  fat,  as  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  79.  Disuse  of  the  fibers  had  caused 
them  to  undergo  a  fatty  degeneration.  From  this  and 
other  facts,  we  conclude  that  exercise  of  the  muscles 


192 


THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 


is    absolutely    necessary    to    keep    them    healthy    and 

strong. 

But  no  one  admires  a  man  who  is  all  muscle,  and  who 
has  no  brain ;  so  we  conclude  that 
it  is  unwise  to  develop  one  par- 
ticular part  of  the  body  and  to 
neglect  some  other  portion.  The 
endeavor  should  be  to  develop  all 
parts  equally  well.  A  proper 
amount  of  exercise  is  one  of  the 
essential  conditions  for  the  accom- 
plishment of  this  end. 

Many  a  young  and  enthusiastic 
scholar  has  been  so  carried  away 
with  his  desire  for  mental  advance- 
ment that  every  hour  spent  in  other 
labor,  or  in  rest,  was  regarded  as 
so  much  time  wasted.  He  failed  to 
remember  that  the  sound  mind  must 
be  in  a  sound  body  to  bring  forth  its 
highest  and  best  results.  It  is  to 
this  class  of  devoted  workers  that  we 
earnestly  appeal.  To  all  such  we 
say,  it  is  of  vital  importance  that  at 
least  one  or  two  hours  of  each  day 
be  spent  in  outdoor  exercise. 
Exercise  should  be  taken  out  of 


FIG.  79.  Two  muscu- 
lar fibers  undergoing  a 
fatty  change,  magnified. 
The  fiber  to  the  left  has 
a  number  of  fat  globules 
gathered  near  the  nuclei. 
The  changes  in  the  fiber 
to  the  right  are  more  ad- 
vanced :  the  transverse 
lines  have  nearly  disap- 
peared ;  the  nuclei  are 
scarcely  visible  ;  and  the 
whole  muscle  substance 
is  nearly  all  changed  to 
fat. 


General  Exercise, 
doors  as  much  as  is  possible,  since  pure  air  is  of  the 
greatest  importance.  No  matter  how  cold  the  air  may 
be  outside,  no  one  need  fear  taking  cold  if  the  body  be 
kept  in  active  exercise  while  exposed,  and  if  rest  be 
taken  in  the  warm  house. 


EXERCISE.  193 

General  exercise  should  not  be  too  violent ;  over-ex- 
ercise is  nearly  as  bad  as  no  exercise.  Any  exercise 
is  too  violent  which  leaves  the  body  "  all  tired  out." 
Such  exercise  unfits  the  body  for  regular  work,  and 
may  prove  injurious  to  the  nervous  system.  Healthful 
exercise  should  bring  a  restful  feeling,  a  desire  for  work, 
and  refreshing  sleep. 

Work  and  Rest.  Each  time  a  muscle  contracts  there 
is  a  waste  of  some  of  its  substance.  During  the  active 
work  of  a  muscle,  the  waste  far  exceeds  the  repair. 
The  worn-out  material  accumulates  faster  than  it  can 
be  carried  away,  and  the  body  experiences  a  sense  of 
fatigue.  If  exercise  be  continued  until  the  body  is 
greatly  fatigued,  and  if  such  exercise  be  frequently 
repeated,  the  muscles  will  gradually  \vaste  away  as 
though  they  were  not  used  at  all. 

If  a  muscle  be  made  to  work,  it  must  have  its  periods 
of  rest.  The  heart  never  appears  to  be  tired.  It  beats 
on,  year  after  year,  with  an  astonishing  regularity.  But 
it  would  soon  wear  out  did  it  not  have  a  period  of  com- 
plete rest  between  its  beats.  In  order  that  the  muscles 
may  be  kept  in  a  healthy  condition  there  should  be 
proper  exercise  followed  by  repose. 

The  Amount  of  Exercise.  If  exercise  be  so  important 
for  the  general  health,  what  is  to  be  considered  a  proper 
amount?  This  varies  within  wide  limits,  according  to 
the  health  and  habits  of  the  individual.  If  the  organs 
and  tissues  of  the  body  are  poorly  nourished,  so  that 
even  slight  exercise  gives  great  fatigue,  then  the  ex- 
ercise should  be  very  short,  and  followed  by  long  rest. 
But  the  fatigue  following  the  exercise  of  those  in  deli- 
cate health  will  grow  less  and  less  if  the  exercise  be 

13 


194  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

steadily  continued;  always  remembering  to  rest  as  soon 
as  one  begins  to  feel  tired.  On  the  other  hand,  a  healthy 
body  will  exercise  until  all  the  muscles  are  thoroughly 
tired ;  and  yet,  after  a  night  of  sound  sleep  will  awake 
feeling  all  the  better  for  the  work. 

Walking.  The  gentlest  form  of  active  exercise  is  walk- 
ing. It  throws  into  action  nearly  all  the  larger  muscles 
of  the  body,  except  those  of  the  arms.  The  advantage 
of  this  form  of  exercise,  over  gymnastics,  is  that  it  takes 
the  person  out  of  doors.  Here  the  varied  scenery  has  its 
exhilarating  effect  on  the  nervous  system,  and  purer  air  is 
inhaled.  To  derive  the  full  benefit  of  walking,  it  should 
be  undertaken  with  a  feeling  of  freedom  and  pleasure. 

The  Bicycle.  One  advantage  in  using  the  bicycle  is  that 
the  mind  is  refreshed  by  the  changing  scenery  and  the 
whole  body  is  brought  into  active  service.  It  is  a  con- 
venient and  economical  conveyance,  and  its  proper  use 
forms  one  of  the  most  valuable  exercises.  But  the  rider 
should  sit  in  a  correct  position,  and  not  bend  low  down 
over  the  forward  wheel. 

Other  Forms  of  Exercise.  Rowing  is  a  very  healthful  ex- 
ercise, and  tends  to  develop  many  parts  of  the  body.  It 
is  likely  to  prove  injurious  when  long  continued  at  a  time, 
and  when  the  muscles  are  used  too  violently.  Horseback 
riding  is  an  excellent  exercise.  It  brings  into  play  nearly 
all  the  muscles,  while  the  fresh  air  and  changing  scenery 
impart  a  healthy  tone  to  the  entire  nervous  system. 

Out-door  exercise  is  always  to  be  preferred  to  that 
taken  indoors.  How  to  find  plenty  of  exercise  in  the 
open  air  does  not  trouble  the  farmer's  boy,  who  has  to 
get  up  early  in  the  morning,  do  his  part  of  the  chores, 
and  then  walk  a  long  way  to  school. 


EXERCISE.  195 

3ut  he  is  the  boy  who  eats  heartily,  sleeps  well,  and  is 
not  easily  fatigued.  He  is  laying  the  sure  foundation  for 
a  healthy  body.  While  it  is  true  that  any  work  which 
brings  the  muscles  into  play  develops  and  strengthens 
them,  yet  it  is  equally  true  that  "  all  work  and  no  play 
makes  Jack  a  dull  boy."  Therefore  we  enter  a  plea  in 
favor  of  the  ball  and  the  racket  for  summer ;  and  the 
sled,  the  skates,  and  the  snowballs  for  winter. 

Benefits  of  Exercise.  The  muscles  are  not  the  only 
parts  benefited  by  exercise  ;  the  general  health  of  the 
entire  body  is  greatly  promoted.  Were  this  not  true, 
but  little  would  be  said  about  muscular  exercise  ;  for 
simply  to  become  physically  strong  should  not  be  our 
highest  ambition.  "  The  pen  is  mightier  than  the 
sword."  The  mind  of  man  is  more  to  be  admired  than 
his  muscular  strength.  It  is  because  a  healthy  body  is 
such  a  great  aid  to  a  vigorous  mind,  that  an  abundance 
of  exercise  is  so  persistently  urged. 

A  proper  amount  of  exercise  increases  the  healthy 
action  of  the  heart,  and  makes  the  blood  flow  more 
freely  through  the  organs  and  tissues.  It  brings  more 
air  into  the  lungs,  increases  the  appetite,  and  aids 
digestion.  From  this  it  logically  follows  that  bodily 
exercise  tends  to  give  more  activity  to  the  mind,  and  to 
strengthen  the  mental  powers.  As  the  mind  grows  and 
expands  it  ought,  under  proper  guidance,  to  bring  forth 
all  that  is  highest  and  best  in  man.  Knowing  these 
things,  it  is  astonishing  to  us  how  any  person  can  delib- 
erately take  into  his  system  such  poisons  as  alcohol  and 
nicotine.  He  who  indulges  in  these  poisons  is  running 
the  fearful  risk  of  undermining  not  only  the  health  of 
his  body,  but  also  the  strength  of  his  mental  and  moral 
nature. 


196  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

When  and  How  to  Exercise.  Vigorous  exercise  should 
never  be  taken  either  just  before  or  just  after  a  meal.  A 
better  time  for  exercise  is  when  the  stomach  has  about 
completed  its  work  of  digestion.  A  short  walk  before 
breakfast  may  give  an  appetite  for  the  morning  meal ; 
but  no  very  active  work  should  be  done  until  after  food 
has  been  taken.  A  sudden  increase  in  the  amount  of 
exercise  is  to  be  avoided.  Excessive  running,  heavy 
lifting,  and  prolonged  violent  exercise  of  any  kind  are 
liable  to  be  very  injurious  to  those  who  have  not  been 
gradually  brought  up  to  such  tests  of  strength.  Run- 
ning a  race,  or  violently  rowing  a  boat,  by  those  who  are 
unaccustomed  to  active  exercise,  might  result  in  great 
harm.  Exercise  should  be  taken  regularly,  and  then 
gradually  increased.  Never  should  attempts  be  made 
to  far  excel  all  former  efforts.  Let  the  body  be  grad- 
ually trained  to  withstand  the  severest  tests  ;  then  the 
heart  and  lungs  will  not  suffer  from  over-exertion. 

Physiognomy.  Physiognomy  is  the  art  of  discovering 
the  ruling  temper,  or  other  qualities  of  the  mind,  by  the 
external  signs  of  the  countenance.  There  seems  to  be 
some  relation  between  the  expressions  of  the  counte- 
nance, and  the  qualities  of  the  mind.  Is  there  any 
physiological  explanation  of  this  relation  ?  It  has  been 
stated  that  the  expressions  of  the  face  are  caused  by 
muscular  contractions,  and  we  already  know  that  a  mus 
cle  is  strengthened  by  exercise  ;  therefore  those  muscles 
which  are  used  the  most  constantly  will  be  the  strongest. 

The  explanation  of  the  constant  expression  of  the  face 
is  based  on  these  facts.  If  the  muscles  that  are  used 
when  we  laugh  are  made  to  contract  a  great  deal,  and 
those  used  when  we  frown  are  exercised  but  little,  then 


EXERCISE.  197 

the  former  will  become  the  stronger,  while  the  latter 
will  remain  weak  and  undeveloped.  This  may  become 
so  marked  that  when  a  person  is  not  thinking  of  laugh- 
ing, the  muscles  still  exert  an  influence,  and  there  will 
remain  a  slight  expression  of  laughter  on  the  face.  Such 
persons  are  said  to  wear  a  pleasant  smile  and  a  cheerful 
face.  But  suppose  grief  or  pain  has  caused  a  person  to 
cry  a  great  deal ;  then  there  is  left  on  the  countenance 
an  expression  of  pain  or  sadness.  If  one  is  in  the  habit 
of  being  cross  and  sullen,  it  will  show  in  the  expression 
of  the  face. 

Thus,  we  conclude,  the  expression  which  is  most  con- 
stantly on  the  face  is  likely  to  become  the  permanent 
one.  This  is  the  reason  why  the  face  often  tells  so  much 
of  the  true  character.  It  is  within  the  power  of  every 
person  to  conquer  an  irritable  temper,  and  transform  it 
into  one  of  kindness  and  patience.  This  is  not  done  sim- 
ply by  changing  the  expression  on  the  face,  but  rather 
by  filling  the  mind  with  true  and  noble  thoughts ;  by  cul- 
tivating those  sentiments  which  are  kind  and  charitable  ; 
and  by  promptly  checking  the  uprisings  of  a  quick  tem- 
per. The  expression  is  but  the  index  of  the  force  behind, 
a  slight  indication  of  the  ruling  thoughts  and  feelings. 


ALCOHOL    AND    MUSCLE. 

Perhaps  no  question  connected  with  the  study  of 
alcohol  is  of  more  importance  than  the  relation  it  bears 
to  muscular  activity.  The  man  who  is  laboring  hard, 
using  his  muscles  many  hours  a  day,  wants  to  know  if 
there  is  not  something  he  can  take  which  will  tone  up 


198  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF  HEALTH. 

his  tired  muscles,  and  make  them  stronger.  He  desires 
to  do  more  work  and  to  do  it  more  easily  and  more 
quickly.  Many  a  laboring  man  thinks  he  cannot  begin 
his  day's  work  without  a  morning  "  tonic  ;  "  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  day  he  must  have  more,  in  order  to  go  through 
the  afternoon ;  while  at  night,  more  must  be  taken  to 
drive  away  the  tired  feelings  of  the  day.  Is  there  an 
extra  amount  of  work  to  be  done  ?  Then  he  resorts  at 
once  to  some  form  of  alcohol  to  carry  him  through  the 
double  labor. 

The  question  is,  Does  alcohol  increase  muscular 
strength?  The  correct  answer  to  this  must  be  based 
upon  carefully  conducted  scientific  experiments,  and 
confirmed  by  the  widest  observation  among  men.  If 
alcohol  does  not  increase  the  strength,  why  is  it  that 
so  many  declare  it  has  this  power  ?  The  workman  in 
the  shop  says :  "  After  taking  a  glass  of  beer,  whiskey, 
or  brandy  I  feel  stronger  and  better  able  to  work."  Two 
questions  must  be  considered  as  relating  to  this  state- 
ment. JFirst,  is  he  actually  made  stronger,  and  second, 
are  his  feelings  a  true  guide  ?  We  must  admit  that  if 
alcohol  will  do  no  harm  to  any  part  of  the  body,  and 
will  impart  strength  to  the  muscles,  it  is  greatly  to  be 
desired.  To  prove  the  correctness  or  incorrectness  of 
the  statement  just  quoted,  it  is  necessary  to  study  the 
effects  of  alcohol  elsewhere.  We  cannot  accept  what  he 
alone  says,  for  he  is  already  under  the  influence  of  the 
drug,  and  as  we  shall  see  later  is  therefore  unable  to 
decide  impartially. 

As  a  result  of  the  most  carefully  conducted  experi- 
ments, it  is  proved,  beyond  a  doubt,  that  both  small  and 
large  doses  of  alcohol  reduce  the  power  of  the  muscles. 


EXERCISE.  199 

Experiments  have  been  made  on  soldiers  who  were  given 
a  fixed  amount  of  work  to  accomplish.  On  certain  days 
they  were  given  some  form  of  alcoholic  drink,  and  on 
those  days  they  were  unable  to  work  either  so  long  or 
so  well.  Benjamin  Franklin,  when  a  poor  printer  boy, 
in  London,  was  called  the  "  American  aquatic,"  because 
he  drank  only  water,  while  his  associates  always  drank 
beer.  To  prove  to  them  that  his  "loaf  of  bread  and 
pint  of  cold  water"  had  more  strength  in  them  than 
their  pint  of  beer,  he  carried  a  large  form  of  type  in 
each  hand,  up  and  down  stairs,  while  his  fellows  could 
carry  but  one. 

Experiments  on  individual  men,  and  on  companies  of 
men,  and  extensive  observation  among  men,  prove,  be- 
yond doubt,  that  when  the  system  is  under  the  influence 
of  alcohol,  the  muscles  cannot  exert  their  full  power. 
The  man  who  takes  alcohol  to  increase  his  strength  robs 
himself  of  muscular  power.  This  may  be  a  pleasant  or 
an  unpleasant  fact ;  nevertheless,  it  is  one  which  science 
teaches  and  observation  confirms.  Four  words  contain 
the  sum  and  substance  of  the  whole  matter:  Alcohol 
weakens  the  muscles. 

But  why  rely  upon  our  statements  alone  for  proof  ? 
If  we  should  make  the  statement  that  you  could  not 
possibly  eat  enough  fruit  or  rich  food  of  any  kind  to 
do  you  harm,  you  would  reply  that  you  know  better. 
Your  observation  among  your  acquaintances  is  such 
that  you  could  tell  us  of  numerous  instances  where 
persons  were  made  ill  by  over-eating  fruit  or  indigesti- 
ble food.  Therefore,  we  say,  look  about  you ;  and  draw 
your  conclusions  from  your  own  observation. 

Did  you  ever  see  an  intoxicated  man  ?     We  hope  not ; 


200  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

but  if  you  have,  that  one  sad  observation  will  make  you 
decide  the  whole  question.  The  manner  of  walking,  the 
bent  form,  and  the  thick  tongue,  show  the  weakening  of 
the  muscles.  For  most  positive  and  unmistakable  proof, 
wait  for  the  still  further  effect,  when  the  whole  body 
staggers,  and,  at  last,  falls  to  the  ground.  What  is  the 
result  of  this  observation?  Is  this  unfortunate  man  now 
stronger  or  weaker  ? 

Remember  that  the  change  from  the  full  strength  of  a 
muscle,  free  from  alcohol,  to  the  weak  muscle  of  the  in- 
toxicated man  is  one  gradual  and  steady  decline.  Now, 
if  the  facts  above  stated  have  been  carefully  observed 
and  considered,  the  conclusion  is  irresistible  that  one 
glass  of  an  alcoholic  beverage  weakens  the  strength ; 
that  two  glasses  diminish  the  strength  still  more ;  that 
three  bring  it  still  lower  ;  and  that  with  continued  repeti- 
tions it  must  be  seriously  impaired  or  entirely  overcome. 

Finding  that  alcohol  does  not  increase  the  muscular 
strength,  we  have  the  other  question  to  answer  :  Why  is 
it,  then,  so  many  people  declare  that  alcoholic  drinks 
make  them  feel  stronger  ? 

We  cannot  deny  their  testimony ;  yet  how  can  we 
reconcile  it  with  what  we  know  to  be  the  truth  ?  The 
whole  trouble  is  just  here  ;  alcohol  is  a  narcotic,  be- 
numbing or  diminishing  the  sensibility  of  the  brain 
and  nerves.  The  nerves  should  report  to  the  brain 
the  condition  of  the  muscles;  but  when  the  tired  man 
takes  an  alcoholic  liquor  these  reporters,  the  nerves, 
and  their  great  center,  the  brain,  are  deadened  and  un- 
able to  give  or  receive  an  accurate  report,  —  the  inability 
varying  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  alcohol  taken. 
This  may  be  so  marked  that  the  person  becomes  quite 


EXEKCISE.  201 

gay  and  light-hearted ;  the  feeling  of  weariness  or  de- 
pression is  gone  because  the  nerves  are  deadened  by 
alcohol.  But  it  is  only  the  feeling  that  is  gone.  Let  the 
man  test  his  strength  and  he  can  lift  no  more,  indeed 
not  so  much,  and  when  the  deadening  effect  of  the  nar- 
cotic has  passed  off  he  will  feel  all  the  more  exhausted. 

It  will  be  a  great  day  for  America  when  all  people  under- 
stand the  weakening  power  of  alcohol.  We  believe  there 
are  many  thousands  of  men  using  strong  drink,  who 
would  stop  it  at  once,  if  they  only  knew  its  power  to 
lower  their  ability  to  earn  a  livelihood.  We  live  in  a 
country  where  the  hardest  and  the  best  labor  will  surely 
win.  Do  you  wish  to  get  to  the  top  ?  You  will  need  all 
your  powers,  mental  and  physical.  Alcohol  will  be  as 
an  immense  ball  and  chain  fastened  to  your  ankle  while 
you  run  to  win  the  race. 

We  must  remember  another  physiological  fact:  to 
grow  fleshy  is  not  to  grow  strong.  In  athletic  sports, 
notice  how  the  men  who  are  to  run  in  a  foot  race  or  to 
row  in  a  boat  race,  always  train  and  diet  for  weeks  in 
order  to  get  rid  of  their  surplus  fat,  and  to  develop  their 
muscles.  Fleshy  people,  as  a  rule,  are  neither  so  healthy 
nor  so  strong  as  those  who  have  less  fat  and  more  hard 
muscle.  An  excessive  amount  of  fat  is  one  of  the  causes 
of  the  "  fatty  heart"  so  common  among  beer-drinkers. 
Much  fat  causes  a  disturbance  in  the  action  of  the  liver, 
and  is  a  hindrance  to  the  proper  action  of  the  muscles. 
Therefore,  it  is  nothing  in  favor  of  beer  that  it  makes 
some  persons  fleshy.  Beer  never  increases  muscular 
strength. 


202  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

THE  SKIN. 

General  Description.  The  skin  forms  a  strong,  close- 
fitting  garment,  protecting  the  delicate  and  sensitive 
parts  beneath.  The  skin  is  not  fastened  tightly  to  the 
tissues ;  it  is  held  by  delicate  bands  of  tissue,  which  are 
of  a  loose  or  open  nature.  This  allows  the  skin  to  be 
raised  and  gathered  in  folds.  It  also  permits  free  move- 
ments of  the  skin  over  the  joints  and  muscles.  In  some 
parts  of  the  body,  as  the  soles  of  the  feet,  and  the  palms 
of  the  hands,  it  acts  as  an  elastic  pad.  It  affords  pro- 
tection against  external  injuries,  both  from  those  of  a 
mechanical  nature,  and  from  the  action  of  chemicals  or 
poisonous  agents.  .In  the  case  of  a  medium-sized  man, 
the  skin  is  equal  to  sixteen  square  feet  of  surface. 

Adipose  Tissue.  The  connective  tissue  beneath  the 
skin  usually  contains  more  or  less  adipose,  or  fatty 
tissue.  In  thin  persons  there  may  be  very  little  fat, 
and  the  outlines  of  the  tendons  and  muscles,  and  even 
the  shape  of  the  bones  may  show  through  the  skin. 
In  fleshy  persons  the  fat  may  be  in  great  abundance, 
pushing  out  the  skin,  and  causing  the  wrinkles  and  out- 
lines of  the  parts  beneath  to  disappear.  In  the  average 
healthy  body  there  is  always  some  fat  in  the  tissues 
beneath  the  skin.  In  old  age  the  fat  is  likely  to  disap- 


THE   SKIN. 


203 


FIG.  80. 


pear,  causing  the  skin  to  form  in  folds  or  wrinkles. 
The  fatty  tissue  is  of  use  as  an  aid  in  retaining  the 
heat  of  the  body,  thus  taking  the  place  of  so  much 
extra  clothing. 

The  fat  is  formed  directly  from  the  connective  tissue. 
This  tissue  is  composed  of  fibers  and  cells.  Many  of 
the  cells  are  of  the 
shape  represented  in 
Fig.  80.  When  the 
body  is  accumulating 
fat,  small  fatty  or 
oily  particles  appear 
in  these  cells.  Later 
these  minute  glob- 
ules of  fat  increase 
in  size  and  number 
until  they  run  to- 
gether as  two  drops  of  oil  unite  making  one  drop.  Still 
later  the  entire  cell  becomes  filled  with  the  fat,  giving 

the  appearance  of  one  large 
spherical  body,  holding  a 
large  fat  globule.  The  con- 
nective tissue-cells  thus 
become  greatly  distended 
and  thereby  increased  in 

FIG.  81.  Fat  cells,  magnified :  size'  When  the  fat  in  the 
to  the  right  are  five  connective  tis-  body  is  being  reduced  by 

sue-cells  partly  filled  with  fat.  disease  or   starvation,  it 

gradually  disappears  from  the  cells. 

The  Epidermis.  The  skin  is  composed  of  two  layers, 
the  epidermis  and  the  dermis.  The  epidermis,  which  is 
also  called  the  cuticle,  or  false  skin,  forms  the  outer 


Cells  from  connective  tissue,  mag- 
nified. 


204 


THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 


layer.  It  is  composed  entirely  of  cells,  the  outer  ones 
being  very  hard  and  dry.  The  cells  are  arranged  many 
layers  deep;  through  them  pass  the  ducts  of  the, sweat 
glands,  the  oil  glands,  and  the  hair  shafts.  Fig.  82  shows 


FIG.  82.  A  section  of  the  epidermis,  magnified  :  A,  the  layer  of  cells 
nearest  the  dermis  ;  D,  the  layer  nearest  the  surface  of  the  body. 

the  microscopical  structure  of  the  epidermis.  The  outer 
cells  at  D  have  no  nuclei,  are  very  hard  and  dry,  and  are 
being  constantly  removed  as  mentioned  below.  The  epi- 
dermis has  neither  blood  vessels  nor  nerves  ;  it  is,  there- 
fore, bloodless  and  without  feeling.  For  these  reasons  it 
is  possible  to  remove  nearly  all  the  epidermis  by  gently 
scraping  the  skin  with  a  knife  without  causing  pain  or  the 
flow  of  blood.  But  as  soon  as  the  true  skin,  the  dermis, 
is  reached,  the  scraping  brings  both  pain  and  blood. 

The  epidermis  is  removed  entire  from  the  dermis  by  a 
blister.  An  ordinary  blister  on  the  hand  shows  a  thin 
membrane,  raised  from  the  parts  beneath,  and  separated 
from  them  by  a  watery  fluid.  Such  a  membrane  may 
be  cut  without  pain  or  blood  ;  for  it  is  the  epidermis  of 
the  skin.  After  the  thin  membrane  is  removed,  if  the 


THE  SKIN.  ^05 

red  surface  beneath  it  be  touched  it  will  be  found  highly 
sensitive  and  easily  made  to  bleed. 

Epidermis  Rapidly  Changing.  The  epidermis  is  a  good 
illustration  of  the  wear  and  waste  of  the  body.  The 
outer  cells  are  constantly  falling  off  in  vast  numbers  ; 
immense  numbers  are  removed  daily  by  the  friction  of 
the  clothing,  and  by  the  work  of  the  sponge  and  towel 
at  the  bath.  This  great  loss  is  being  steadily  made  up 
by  the  formation  of  new  cells  in  the  deeper  parts  ;  these 
come  to  the  surface  as  the  ones  over  them  disappear. 

If  all  of  the  epidermis  were  removed  at  once  the  parts 
left  would  be  very  red  and  tender;  but  in  the  case  of 
the  blister,  a  few  cells  of  the  epidermis  are  left  cling- 
ing to  the  true  skin ;  these  rapidly  multiply  until  within 
a  few  days  a  complete  new  epidermis  is  formed.  After 
some  fevers,  as  during  the  "peeling"  of  scarlet  fever, 
large  masses  of  cells  are  removed  together. 

The  Coloring  of  the  Skin.  The  color  of  the  skin  de- 
pends largely  upon  the  character  of  the  deepest  cells  of 
the  epidermis,  as  at  A,  Fig.  82.  In  very  light  skins 
these  cells  are  colorless,  in  darker  skins  the  cells  have 
a  slight  amount  of  dark  coloring  matter  in  them  ;  while 
in  the  darkest  skins,  the  coloring  matter  is  very  abun- 
dant. A  destruction  of  these  deep  cells  causes  the 
epidermis  to  appear  perfectly  white,  as  it  does  in  certain 
diseases.  The  white  skin  of  the  Albinos  is  due  to  the 
absence  of  any  coloring  matter  in  these  cells.  A  free 
supply  of  blood  to  the  skin  gives  it  a  red  or  pink  color  ; 
while  any  interference  with  the  action  of  the  liver  may 
give  a  jaundiced,  or  yellow  color  to  the  skin. 

Uses  of  Epidermis.  The  outer  layer  of  cells  of  the 
epidermis,  as  seen  at  D,  Fig.  82,  consists  of  closely 


206  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

packed,  hard  cells  which  make  a  very  complete  and 
almost  impenetrable  covering.  Therefore,  the  epidermis 
is  a  protection  against  the  absorption  of  poisons.  The 
physician  understands  this ;  for  if  he  wishes  to  intro- 
duce medicine  into  the  system  by  the  skin,  he  first 
scrapes  off  the  epidermis,  or  removes  it  with  a  blister, 
and  then  sprinkles  on  the  drug.  In  vaccinating,  it  is 
necessary  to  remove  the  epidermis,  in  order  that  the 
virus  may  come  in  contact  with  the  absorbent  vessels 
beneath. 

The  surgeon  is  not  harmed  while  operating  on  dis- 
eased portions  of  the  body,  because  the  epidermis  pre- 
vents the  absorption  of  any  decaying  matter  ;  but  a  few 
cases  are  on  record  where  the  skin  on  .the  surgeon's 
hand  was  accidentally  cut  or  broken  while  operating, 
thus  allowing  diseased  matter  to  be  absorbed,  producing 
blood  poisoning  and  even  death.  Immersing  the  whole 
hand  in  poisonous  matter  might  possibly  do  no  harm, 
provided  the  epidermis  were  in  a  perfect  condition  every- 
where ;  but  the  slightest  prick  of  the  finest  needle  might 
then  be  the  cause  of  death.  The  epidermis  also  pro- 
tects the  parts  beneath  from  the  sudden  changes  of  heat 
and  cold. 

The  Tactile  Bodies.  The  tactile  bodies  give  the  sense 
of  touch.  They  are  situated  in  the  dermis,  or  true  skin ; 
they  reach  to  the  epidermis  but  do  not  penetrate  it. 
Wherever  the  sense  of  touch  is  the  most  delicate,  there 
are  found  the  largest  number  of  tactile  bodies.  Over  one 
hundred  of  these  bodies  have  been  counted  in  a  space 
-g^  of  an  inch  square.  They  are  very  small,  averaging 
no  larger  than  3-^  of  an  inch  in  length.  Thus  the  mi- 
croscope shows  that  while  it  is  true  that  the  epidermis 


THE   SKIN. 


207 


has  neither  blood  vessels  nor  nerves,  yet  just  beneath  it 
are  nerves 'especially  arranged  for  the  sense  of  touch. 
These  tactile  bodies  are  illustrated  at  4,  Fig.  83.  The 
dermis  is  also  well  supplied  with  blood  vessels. 


FIG.  83.  A  section  of  the  human  skin,  magnified  :  (1)  the  epidermis  , 
(2)  the  duct  of  a  sweat  gland  ;  (3)  a  sweat  gland  ;  (4)  the  ending  of  a 
nerve,  for  the  sense  of  touch  ;  (5)  coils  of  minute  bloodvessels  ;  (6)  a  haii 
follicle,  in  which  is  a  hair  ;  (7)  a  muscle,  which  can  move  the  hair  follicle. 

The  Sweat  Glands.  The  sweat  glands  are  found  in  the 
deep  parts  of  the  dermis,  or  in  the  tissue  immediately 
beneath  the  dermis.  In  Figs.  83  and  84  these  glands 
are  represented  as  minute  tubes  arranged  in  circular 
coils.  That  part  of  the  tube  which  is  not  coiled,  but 
which  extends  from  the  gland  to  the  surface  of  the  skin, 


208 


THE   ESSENTIALS   OF  HEALTH. 


is  called  the  duct :  the  duct  pursues  a  spiral  course,  ai 
represented  in  Fig.  84,  and  opens  on  the  surface  with  a 
funnel-shaped  dilatation. 

If  the  ridges  which  ap- 
pear so  plainly  on  the  ends 
of  the  fingers  and  palms 
of  the  hands,  be  exam- 
ined with  a  small  magni- 
fying glass,  it  is  possible 
to  see  the  minute  depres- 
sions in  the  center  of 
them  ;  these  represent  the 
openings  of  the  sweat 
glands.  The  view  ob- 
tained will  resemble  that 
given  in  Fig.  85.  The 
openings  are  quite  close 
together,  in  some  places 
averaging  as  many  as 
3000  to  the  square  inch. 
From  the  surface  of  the 
skin  to  the  coiled  glands 
is  about  one  fourth  of  an 
inch.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  over  three  millions 
of  these  glands  in  the  entire  skin. 

The  Perspiration.  The  perspiration  is  a  colorless  fluid, 
secreted  in  the  coils  of  the  sweat  glands.  It  is  of  very 
simple  composition,  over  99.5  per  cent  of  it  being  water. 
Some  inorganic  substances,  as  sodic  chloride,  common 
salt,  give  it  a  salty  taste;  while  some  organic  ingre- 
dients, as  the  fatty  acids,  impart  to  it  an  odor.  The 
perspiration  is  a  continuous  secretion.  When  it  is 


FIG.  84.  A  portion  of  Fig.  83.  The 
section  was  prepared  especially  to  show 
the  sweat  glands  and  their  ducts  :  (1) 
ducts  of  the  sweat  glands  ;  (2)  the 
hair  shaft. 


THE   SKIN. 


209 


small  in  amount,  the  water  is  evaporated  from  the  skin 
at  once,  therefore  its  presence  on  the  skin  is  not  no- 
ticed; this  is  called  the  insensible  perspiration.  As  soon 
as  the  secretion  is  increased,  it  does  not  all  evaporate, 
but  gathers  as  drops  of  sweat  on  the  surface ;  this  is  called 
the  sensible  perspiration.  Many  conditions  cause  the 
amount  of  perspiration  to  vary.  In  some  individuals  the 
whole  amount  per  day  is  very  small ;  while  in  others  it 


FIG.  85.    The  surface  of  the  skin,   slightly  magnified,   showing  the 
openings  of  the  sweat  glands. 

is  very  large.  It  is  a  fair  average  for  the  year  through 
to  say  that  from  two  to  four  pounds  are  secreted  each 
day. 

There  is  a  marked  difference  in  the  perspiration  of 
the  lower  animals ;  the  horse  perspires  freely  ;  the  ox 
to  a  slight  extent  only  ;  and  the  dog  but  little,  if  any. 
The  panting  of  the  dog  after  exercising  allows  much 
water  to  be  given  off  from  the  body  through  the  lungs ; 

14 


210  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

and  in  this  way  the  object  of  regulating  the  temperature 
of  the  body  is  gained,  as  will  be  described  later. 

Controlled  by  Nerves.  The  activity  of  the  sweat  glands 
is  under  the  control  of  certain  nerves.  While  it  is  true 
that  dilatation  of  the  blood  vessels  is  usually  associated 
with  profuse  perspiration,  yet  it  is  possible  to  arouse 
these  glands  into  activity  even  after  the  supply  of  blood 
has  been  cut  off.  For  instance,  in  cases  of  great  fear, 
when  the  skin  is  extremely  pale,  and  its  blood  vessels 
nearly  empty,  the  face  may  be  covered  with  great  drops 
of  perspiration. 

Conditions  Affecting  Perspiration.  An  increase  in  the 
temperature  of  the  surrounding  air  will  cause  an  in- 
creased secretion  of  the  perspiration.  Individuals  who 
work  in  furnaces,  or  in  places  of  very  high  temperature, 
often  perspire  as  much  in  an  hour  as  the  average  person 
will  in  a  day.  Those  who  perspire  freely  ought  to  drink 
a  large  amount  of  water  to  supply  the  loss,  or  the  sys- 
tem will  soon  become  exhausted.  An  extra  amount  of 
water 'in  the  system,  as  there  is  after  a  free  use  of  warm 
drinks,  will  increase  the  secretion.  Muscular  activity 
is  known  by  all  to  do  the  same.  Certain  drugs  excite 
very  copious  perspiration,  while  other  drugs  diminish  it. 
The  secretion  is  lessened  by  cold  ;  in  fact,  it  may  be 
suddenly  arrested  by  this  means. 

"The  liability  to  perspire  varies  greatly  in  different  in- 
dividuals, and  in  the  same  individual  at  different  times. 
Any  departure  from  health  may  cause  it  to  vary  from 
the  hot,  dry  skin  of  fever,  to  the  profuse  night-sweats  of 
consumption.  There  is  a  direct  relation  existing  between 
the  kidneys  and  the  skin.  In  summer  when  the  skin  is 
active  the  secretion  of  the  kidneys  is  much  lessened,  while 


THE   SKIN.  211 

in  winter  when  the  skin  is  less  active  the  work  of  the 
kidneys  is  increased. 

Object  of  the  Perspiration.  The  chief  object  of  the 
perspiration  is  to  regulate  the  temperature  of  the  body, 
although  it  removes  a  slight  amount  of  worn-out  material. 
It  is  well  known  that  when  a  liquid  evaporates  it  pro- 
duces cold.  So  the  evaporation  of  a  number  of  pounds 
of  water  each  day  from  the  surface  of  the  body  during 
the  warm  days  of  summer,  causes  a  considerable  lower- 
ing of  the  temperature.  Exercise  during  the  summer 
would  be  quite  impossible  were  it  not  for  this  fact. 
The  exercise  causes  rapid  oxidation  of  the  tissues,  and 
this  produces  heat ;  and  added  to  this  is  the  heated  at- 
mosphere. Were  not  some  way  provided  of  cooling  the 
body,  it  would  soon  be  in  a  raging  fever.  But  the  more 
exercise,  and  the  higher  the  thermometer,  so  much  more 
profuse  is  the  perspiration,  while  its  rapid  evaporation 
causes  the  body  to  remain  at  about  a  fixed  degree  of  heat. 

Checking  the  Perspiration,  Sudden  cooling  of  the  skin 
checks  its  action,  throws  additional  work  on  other  parts 
of  the  body,  and  often  causes  disease.  One  of  the  most 
frequent  causes  of  a  cold  is  the  sudden  checking  of  the 
perspiration.  After  exercising,  or  whenever  the  body 
is  perspiring  freely,  there  should  be  great  care  in  re- 
gard to  draughts  of  air.  The  body  should  be  gradually 
cooled,  with  some  light  clothing  thrown  over  the 
shoulders,  while  resting.  Sudden  checking  of  the  per- 
spiration is  positively  injurious  and  may  easily  lead  to 
fatal  results. 

The  Hair.  A  hair  consists  of  the  root  and  the  shaft. 
The  former  is  situated  in  the  skin,  and  the  tatter  pro- 
jects from  it  The  hair  may  be  easily  removed  from  its 


212 


THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 


sac  or  follicle,  without  damage.  At  the  lower  end  of 
each  hair  is  a  small  eminence,  or  papilla,  which  is  well 
supplied  with  blood.  The  root  of  the  hair  rests  on  this 
papilla  and  grows  therefrom.  The  cells  of  the  papilla 
multiply  and  grow,  pushing  those  already  formed  up- 
wards toward  the  surface.  A  hair  therefore,  grows  en- 
tirely from  the  root,  from  this  minute  papilla,  if  a 

hair  be  removed,  another 
begins  to  grow  at  once  from 
the  papilla,  and  in  time  will 
appear  on  the  surface.  A 
destruction  of  the  papilla  is 
necessary  to  prevent  the  hair 
from  growing.  ' 

The  hair  shaft  is  not  hol- 
low, although  its  center  is 
composed   of   cells   more 
loosely  arranged  than  those 
forming  the  exterior.     Hair 
is  very  elastic ;  with  proper 
care    it    can    be    made    to 
stretch  nearly  one  third  its 
FioT86.  Human  hair,  FIG.  87.  A  hair  entire  length  before  break- 
magnified,  from  the  cat.  ing.     It  is  also  very  strong, 
—  a   single  hair   being   capable  of  suspending  a  body 
weighing  from  three  to  five  pounds. 

A  glance  at  Figs.  86  and  87  shows  that  the  micro- 
scope reveals  a  great  difference  between  the  hairs  of  the 
lower  animals  and  those  of  man.  In  certain  cases  the 
difference  is  very  marked,  as  here  shown,  while  in 
others  it  is  not  so  marked.  These  facts  have  been 
used  for  the  detection  of  fraud,  and  other  crimes. 


THE   SKIN. 


213 


Muscle  of  the  Hair.     In  Fig.  83  it  is  noticed  that  the 
hair  is  placed  obliquely  in  the  skin.     Fastened  to  the 


FIG.  88.    A  human  hair  in  its  sheath,  or  follicle,  magnified  :  H,  the 
hair  shaft ;  M,  the  muscle  ;  G,  the  oil  gland. 

lower  part  of  this  hair  sac  and  extending  obliquely  up- 


214  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 

wards  and  to  the  left  is  a  muscle.  This  muscle  is  better 
shown  at  M,  in  Fig.  88.  The  muscle  is  thus  arranged 
at  an  acute  angle,  so  that  when  it  contracts,  it  pulls  on 
the  base  of  the  hair  sac,  causing  it  to  stand  more  nearly 
erect.  In  this  way  the  hair  is  made  literally  "  to  stand 
on  end."  A  contraction  of  this  muscle  produces  the 
condition  known  as  "  goose  skin." 

The  Sebaceous  Glands.  The  sebaceous  or  oil  glands 
are  situated  by  the  side  of  the  hair  sacs  into  which  they 
open  by  a  duct,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  88  at  G.  These 
glands  secrete  an  oily  substance  which  is  spread  around 
the  hair  making  it  smooth  and  glossy.  Some  of  the 
secretion  extends  over  the  skin  making  it  soft  and  thus 
preventing  it  from  becoming  hard  and  dry.  Often  the 
ducts  to. these  glands  become  stopped  up,  and  the  secre- 
tion distends  the  glands.  This  afterwards  becomes  dark 
colored,  disfiguring  the  skin. 

By  referring  to  Fig.  88,  it  will  be  noticed  that  a  seba- 
ceous gland  is  situated  between  the  hair  sac  and  the 
muscle',  M.  By  the  contraction  of  this  muscle  the  hair  is 
drawn  toward  its  upper  attachment  ajid  the  gland  thereby 
compressed,  thus  aiding  in  forcing  out  its  contents. 

The  Nails.  The  nails  grow  from  behind  forward,  thus 
being  constantly  pushed  outward.  They  are  composed 
of  minute  cells,  similar  to  those  found  in  the  deeper 
parts  of  the  epidermis,  only  they  are  firmer  and  harder. 
The  nails  protect  the  ends  of  the  fingers  and  toes  ;  and 
they  give  aid  to  the  fingers  in  picking  up  small  objects. 
If  a  nail  be  removed  by  an  accident,  a  new  one  will  take 
its  place  in  a  few  weeks,  providing  the  root  is  not 
injured. 


BATHING.  -  CLOTHING.  215 


CHAPTER  XX. 
BATHING-.  —  CLOTHING-. 

Necessity  of  Bathing.  We  know  that  an  immense  num- 
ber of  sweat  glands  are  constantly  pouring  their  secre- 
tion on  the  surface  of  the  skin ;  that  vast  numbers  of  oil 
glands  are  depositing  an  oily  substance  on  the  surface 
also ;  and  that  the  cells  of  the  epidermis  are  constantly 
loosening  and  falling  off  in  great  numbers.  It  is  only 
necessary  to  recall  these  facts,  in  order  to  understand 
fully  the  necessity  of  frequent  bathing.  The  glands  of 
the  skin  have  a  certain  work  to  do  ;  how  can  they  prop- 
erly perform  this  if  their  ducts  be  closed  by  an  accumu- 
lation of  such  material  on  the  surface  ?  If  these  glands 
cannot  perform  their  full  duty,  then  other  glands  or 
organs  must  do  it  for  them,  or  sickness  will  follow. 
We  conclude,  therefore,  that  neglect  of  the  skin  means 
more  work  for  the  lungs  and  kidneys,  especially  for  the 
latter. 

Always  considered  Important.  The  nations  of  antiquity 
had  much  to  say  about  the  bath,  both  as  a  luxury  and  as 
a  means  of  preserving  the  health.  The  public  baths  of 
Rome  were  among  the  most  interesting  of  her  works  of 
grandeur  and  beauty.  Most  beautiful  works  of  art  have 
been  recovered  from  their  ruins,  all  speaking  of  the 
splendid  preparations  made  for  this  luxury.  The  cost  of 


216  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

a  bath  in  one  of  these  elegant  quarters  was  almost  noth- 
ing, so  that  all  people  could  enjoy  its  benefits.  After 
bathing,  the  skin  was  usually  anointed  with  perfumed 
oil ;  and  this  was  followed  by  light  exercise  for  a  short 
time.  In  those  days  nearly  every  one  could  swim ;  and 
to  be  unable  to  swim  was  about  as  great  a  disgrace  as  to 
be  unable  to  read. 

When  to  Bathe.  Probably  immediately  after  rising  in 
the  morning  is  the  best  time  to  bathe.  The  body  is 
rested,  reaction  is  easy,  and  the  circulation  is  at  its  best. 
The  ideal  bath  is  a  brief,  daily  use  of  cold  water,  im- 
mediately after  rising,  followed  with  a  brisk  use  of  the 
towel.  One  should  never  bathe  when  greatly  fatigued, 
nor  use  a  cold  bath  if  feeling  chilly.  Neither  should  a 
bath  be  taken  immediately  before  or  immediately  after  a 
hearty  meal.  It  should  not  be  taken  soon  after  a  meal, 
because  the  rubbing  brings  the  blood  to  the  surface, 
and  therefore  must  take  some  of  the  blood  away  from 
the  stomach,  where  it  is  needed.  Great  caution  should 
be  used  in  bathing  when  the  body  is  over-heated,  and 
when  it  is  perspiring  freely ;  because  if  the  water  should 
be  too  cool,  or  if  the  rubbing  should  fail  to  produce  a 
complete  reaction,  then  a  severe  cold  or  something  more 
serious  might  result.  Both  too  cold  and  too  hot  water 
are  alike  injurious. 

The  Cold  Bath  a  Tonic.  A  healthy  person  should  re- 
gard the  bath  as  something  more  than  a  cleansing  pro- 
cess. It  should  be  a  tonic  of  the  most  invigorating 
character.  The  first  effect  of  the  cold  is  to  drive  the 
blood  from  the  skin ;  but  soon  reaction  takes  place,  and 
the  blood  returns  with  renewed  force,  filling  the  capil- 
laries of  the  skin,  and  imparting  a  healthy  glow  to  the 


BATHING.  — CLOTHING.  217 

entire  surface.  Just  at  this  time  the  bathing  should 
cease.  The  brisk. use  of  the  towel  heightens  the  flow 
of  blood,  and  the  whole  body  becomes  enveloped  with 
a  pleasant  sense  of  comfort  and  warmth.  To  remain 
longer  in  the  bath  would  be  to  send  the  blood  from  the 
surface  for  the  second  time,  from  which  reaction  might 
not  occur,  causing  a  sensation  of  chilliness  and  fatigue. 
The  brisk  work  of  the  rubbing  causes  the  exercise  of 
many  muscles,  and  the  whole  body  is  thereby  aroused 
to  activity. 

The  cold  bath  is  injurious  to  those  who  do  not  have 
a  quick  reaction  from  its  use.  The  skin  should  be  left 
red  and  warm,  and  the  whole  system  ought  to  be  in- 
vigorated. If  not,  and  the  opposite  be  true,  then  the 
cold  bath  is  injurious  rather  than  helpful.  If  the  bath 
be  short  at  first,  if  the  water  be  cool,  if  it  be  continued 
daily,  if  the  towel  be  used  briskly,  and  if  only  a  por- 
tion of  the  body  be  bathed  at  a  time,  then  it  must  be  of 
benefit.  Soon  the  water  can  be  used  colder  and  the 
time  of  the  bath  extended.  With  these  precautions  in 
mind,  it  is  safe  to  assert  that  there  are  very  few  young 
people,  in  fair  health,  who  would  not  be  greatly  benefited 
by  the  daily  use  of  the  cold  bath.  A  quick  sponge 
bath  with  cold  water,  followed  by  thorough  rubbing,  is 
the  best  method  to  illustrate  the  advantages  and  safety 
of  the  cold  bath. 

Salt  Water  Bathing.  Many  persons  who  visit  the  sea- 
shore plunge  into  the  cold  water  at  once,  and  remain 
there  for  a  number  of  minutes.  If  they  have  been  accus- 
tomed to  the  cold  bath  at  home,  there  can  be  no  more 
healthful  exercise.  The  beating  of  the  surf  against  the 
skin  is  an  invigorating  tonic  in  itself,  while  the  muscles 


218  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

of  the  whole  body  are  brought  into  action  in  withstand- 
ing the  force  of  the  waves.  The  change  of  scenery  and 
the  freedom  from  care  aid  in  imparting  new  life  to  the 
seaside  resorter.  If  he  be  unaccustomed  to  the  cold 
bath,  however,  and  suddenly  spends  from  twenty  to 
thirty  minutes  in  the  sea,  he  must  expect  undesirable 
effects  to  follow.  A  vast  amount  of  sickness  is  caused 
in  this  way,  all  of  which  might  be  prevented. 

Forms  of  Baths.  A  Turkish  bath  is  one  in  which  the 
bather  is  placed  successively  in  rooms  of  higher  temper- 
ature ;  then  rubbed ;  and,  at  last,  douched  with  cold 
water.  For  a  Russian  bath,  the  person  is  placed  in  a 
room  in  which  steam  is  escaping  from  a  steam-pipe ; 
this  is  followed  by  brisk  friction  of  the  body.  A  shower 
bath  is  when  the  water  strikes  the  body  in  a  number  of 
streams.  A  cold  bath  is  when  the  temperature  of  the 
water  is  from  60°  to  75°  F. ;  a  tepid  bath  from  85°  to 
95°  F. ;  a  warm  bath,  from  90°  to  104° ;  a  hot  bath, 
from  104°  to  110°. 

It  is  a  great  mistake  to  suppose  that  one  needs  to 
take  an  alcoholic  drink  of  any  kind  after  bathing,  to 
prevent  taking  cold.  The  notion,  however,  is  a  preva- 
lent one,  especially  as  regards  sea-bathing. 

An  occasional  warm  bath,  with  the  use  of  pure  soap, 
is  necessary.  But  a  daily  warm  bath,  in  the  bathing- 
tub,  lowers  the  tone  of  the  system  and  diminishes  its 
power  to  withstand  disease. 

How  to  Bathe.  There  is  always  a  temptation  to  have 
the  bathing-tub  filled  with  tepid  water,  and  then  remain 
in  it  a  long  time.  But  this  method  deprives  the  bath  of 
its  tonic  properties.  A  bath  of  this  description  once  a 
week  may  be  desirable,  but  is  most  undesirable  for  daily 


BATHING.  —  ULOTHING.  219 

use.  The  better  method  is  to  use  the  hands,  or  mittens 
made  from  crash  toweling;  quickly  cover  a  portion  of 
the  body  with  cool  or  cold  water ;  rub  this  portion  dry  ; 
and  thus  proceed  until  the  bath  is  completed.  The 
whole  bath  should  not  exceed  five  minutes. 

The  Value  of  the  Bath.  The  value  of  the  bath  will 
depend  largely  on  the  completeness  of  the  reaction  fol- 
lowing its  use.  As  stated  before,  the  skin  s^  Duld  be 
warm  and  the  whole  system  refreshed.  But  if  the  skin 
be  cold,  and  the  body  feel  chilly  and  fatigued  ;  or  if  the 
bath  be  followed  by  headache  and  general  lassitude, 
then  the  practice  should  be  discontinued,  and  a  physi- 
cian consulted  to  discover  where  the  error  rests.  The 
bath  is  of  great  value  to  those  who  are  already  well  and 
strong;  it  is  to  such  that  its  use  is  so  freely  recom- 
mended. It  is  of  great  value  in  keeping  the  various 
organs  and  tissues  of  the  body  in  a  healthy  condition, 
and  it  is  therefore  a  good  preventive  of  disease.  The 
aged  and  the  feeble  need  special  advice  for  their  particu- 
lar cases  ;  and  the  bath  should  be  used  by  them  only 
under  the  advice  of  a  physician. 

A  Good  Complexion.  Bathing  is  essential  if  one  de- 
sires a  good  complexion.  The  skin  must  be  active  and 
do  its  part  of  the  work.  Frequent  bathing  of  the  face 
with  pure  water  is  especially  desirable.  Soaps  are  not 
necessary  for  the  face,  while  their  use  often  causes 
roughness  of  the  skin.  Cosmetics  almost  invariably  con- 
tain substances  which  are  injurious  to  the  skin.  Their 
continued  use  often  seriously  affects  the  general  health. 

The  Clothing.  One  object  of  the  clothing  is  to  prevent 
too  great  loss  of  heat  from  the  body.  The  surround- 
ing atmosphere  is  nearly  always  cooler  than  the  body, 


220  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

therefore  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  body  to  lose  heat, 
The  clothing  corrects  this  tendency  in  a  large  measure. 
Food  produces  the  heat  and  the  clothing  prevents  its 
escape ;  for  this  reason  it  is  true  that  poorly  fed  persons 
need  more  clothing  in  winter  than  those  who  are  well 
fed.  Animals  require  less  food,  and  are  able  to  do  more 
work,  if  they  are  kept  warm  during  the  cold  weather. 
Protection  from  the  cold  economizes  the  fuel  of  the 
body,  which  is  the  food. 

Adaptation  of  Clothing.  Our  clothing  should  be  suita- 
ble to  the  season,  and  to  the  time  of  day.  To  escape  the 
effects  of  sudden  changes  of  temperature,  the  garments 
worn  next  the  skin  should  be  made  of  a  material  which 
is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat.  Any  change  from  thick  to 
thinner  garments  should  be  made  in  the  early  part  of 
the  day,  as  the  evenings  are  usually  cooler  and  the  body 
is  more  fatigued.  More  clothing  is  necessary  at  night 
because  the  temperature  is  colder  than  during  the  day, 
and  the  body  is  not  engaged  in  any  exercise.  A  person 
who  is  exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  should  con- 
sider carefully  the  color  of  the  clothing.  White  is  the 
best  protection,  then,  in  order,  gray,  yellow,  pink,  blue, 
and  black. 

The  Materials  of  Clothing.  With  the  above  facts  in 
mind,  it  is  natural  that  furs  should  be  extensively  used 
during  the  cold  weather.  Next  to  fur,  wool  is  the 
most  suitable  and  hygienic  material  for  winter  cloth- 
ing. All  woolen  garments  are  poor  conductors  of  heat, 
and  are  therefore  valuable  for  winter  use.  Woolen 
garments  are  a  wonderful  protection  against  the  cold 
in  winter,  and  during  the  sudden  changes  in  summer, 
they  should  be  worn  next  to  the  skin  the  entire  year. 


BATHING.  —  CLOTHING.  221 

The  thick  and  heavy  material  can  be  used  during  the 
winter,  and  the  thinnest  and  lightest  during  the  sum- 
mer. If  woolen  garments  irritate  the  skin,  then  silk 
may  be  used,  as  approaching  the  nearest  to  wool. 
These  simple  precautions  in  dress  will  prevent  an  im- 
mense amount  of  illness.  The  sudden  changes  in  tem- 
perature and  exposure  to  draughts  would  not  so  often 
be  followed  by  colds,  chills,  sore  throats,  and  lung 
troubles,  if  the  body  were  constantly  surrounded  by 
a  non-conducting  medium,  as  wool  or  silk.  Linen  is  a 
good  conductor  of  heat ;  therefore,  it  should  not  be  used 
next  to  the  body.  Cotton  is  much  to  be  preferred  to 
linen,  and  it  is  much  better  for  bed-clothing.  The  outer 
garments  can  be  regulated  according  to  the  seasons  and 
the  conditions  of  the  air,  but  under  all  circumstances 
keep  the  surface  of  the  skin  well  protected  with  either 
wool  or  silk. 

The  Weight  of  Clothing.  A  heavy  covering  of  cotton, 
or  linen,  is  not  so  warm  as  a  lighter  covering  of  wool  or 
silk.  The  weight  of  clothing  has  no  definite  proportion 
to  its  warmth.  Air  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat,  so  is 
wool ;  hence,  it  follows,  that  the  light,  loose  cloud  worn  by 
ladies  as  a  covering  to  the  head  is  based  upon  scientific 
principles.  The  air  in  the  meshes  of  the  wool,  and  the 
wool  itself,  give  little  chance  for  the  heat  to  escape. 
Therefore  in  choosing  clothing,  the  nature  of  the  ma- 
terial should  be  considered  more  than  its  weight,  —  its 
value  as  a  non-conductor  of  heat  being  in  the  order  here 
given  :  wool,  silk,  cotton,  and  linen. 

Clothing  should  Fit  well.  It  is  not  conducive  to  the 
general  appearance  to  have  ill-fitting  clothing;  yet  it 
does  not  follow  that  tight  clothing  adds  to  the  appear- 


222  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

ance.  To  the  physiologist,  the  constricted  waist  and 
the  pinched  foot  represent  ill-fitting  clothing  decidedly 
more  than  does  the  loosest  hanging  garment.  Tight 
belts  and  corsets  are  accountable  for  a  long  series  of 
complaints.  Constricting  the  waist  compresses  the 
liver  and  stomach  and  interferes  with  the  movements 
of  the  diaphragm  ;  this  often  causes  headache,  dyspepsia, 
shortness  of  breath,  and  a  multitude  of  aches  and  pains. 
Clothing  can  and  should  be  made  to  fit  well,  and  yet 
it  need  not  interfere  with  the  action  of  any  organ,  or 
with  the  natural  movements  of  any  part. 

Clothing  should  be  Changed.  Wet  feet  are  the  cause 
of  many  a  sore  throat  and  severe  cold  ;  and  for  most 
persons,  it  is  a  great  risk  to  allow  them  to  remain  damp. 
They  should  be  dried  and  rubbed  thoroughly  as  soon  as 
possible,  in  order  to  fully  restore  the  circulation.  If  one 
be  caught  in  a  storm  so  that  the  clothing  becomes  damp 
or  wet,  it  should  be  changed  at  the  first  opportunity. 
Brisk  exercise  in  the  mean  time  will  keep  the  body  from 
becoming  chilled.  But  if  chilly  sensations  and  hot 
flashes  are  already  creeping  over  the  body,  probably  a 
severe  cold  is  coming  on.  .  . 

To  Cure  a  Cold,  A  cold  is  generally  produced,  as  just 
indicated,  by  some  exposure,  so  that  the  skin  is  inactive 
and  the  internal  organs  congested.  The  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  nose,  throat,  larynx,  bronchi,  and  the  lungs 
are,  one  or  all,  most  likely  to  be  affected.  During  the 
summer  the  congestion  of  the  internal  organs  often 
causes  a  disturbance  of  the  digestive  organs.  It  is 
essential,  therefore,  to  cure  a  cold  at  the  beginning; 
this  can  often  be  done  by  very  simple  remedies.  The 
object  to  be  accomplished  is  to  restore  activity  and 


BATHING.  —  CLOTHING.  223 

warmth  to  the  skin.  This  can  be  brought  about  by  giv- 
ing hot  drinks,  and  by  adding  extra  clothing.  Drink 
slowly  a  bowlful  of  hot  lemonade,  or  hot  ginger-tea, 
while  the  feet  are  in  a  hot  bath,  and  while  an  extra 
blanket  is  thrown  over  the  body.  Soon  the  body  will 
perspire  freely,  and  the  whole  system  feel  warm  from 
the  artificial  heat.  Have  the  bed-clothing  thoroughly 
warmed  before  getting  into  bed,  and  then  keep  well 
under  cover.  Remain  in  this  condition  until  the  body 
is  thoroughly  covered  with  perspiration,  when  we  can 
be  assured  the  skin  has  resumed  its  activity.  Have  the 
body  rubbed  dry,  and  gradually  remove  the  extra  cloth- 
ing, in  order  that  the  temperature  may  be  slowly  low- 
ered. If  such  simple  treatment  were  more  frequently 
and  more  quickly  carried  out,  a  vast  amount  of  illness 
would  be  prevented. 

QUESTIONS. 

1 .  Give  some  reasons  why  frequent  bathing  is  necessary. 

2.  When  is  the  best  time  to  bathe  ? 

3.  Give  some  cautions  about  bathing. 

4.  Describe  the  first  effect  and  the  reaction  of  a  cold  bath. 

5.  Wnen  is  a  cold  bath  injurious  ? 

6.  Give  some  directions  about  sea  bathing. 

7.  What  is  said  about  the  warm  bath  ? 

8.  The  value  of  a  bath  depends  upon  what  ? 

9.  Why  is  the  bath  a  good  preventive  of  disease  ? 

10.  What  is  one  object  of  the  clothing?     Explain. 

11.  How  does  nature  regulate  the  clothing  of  the  lower  animals  ? 

12.  What  material  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat? 

13.  Is  heavy  clothing  necessarily  the  warmest? 

14.  Give  directions  for  curing  a  cold. 


224  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF    HEALTH. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

ANIMAL   HEAT. 

Sources  of  Animal  Heat  It  has  already  been  stated 
that  the  heat  of  the  body  is  derived  from  the  food,  and 
from  the  oxygen  obtained  during  respiration.  By  the 
union  of  these,  oxidation  occurs,  and  heat  is  produced. 
It  appears  from  this  statement  that  there  must  exist  a 
relation  between  the  amount  of  oxygen  consumed  and 
the  amount  of  heat  produced  in  the  body :  thus,  if  an 
animal  consumes  little  oxygen  it  will  have  a  low  tem- 
perature ;  if  much  oxygen,  then  a  higher  temperature. 
Another  source  of  heat  is  from  certain  physical  pro- 
cesses' of  the  body,  as  the  work  of  the  heart,  the  general 
circulation,  and  the  active  exercise  of  the  body. 

The  chief  source  of  heat  is  found  in  the  muscular 
system.  The  muscles  form  a  large  proportion  of  the 
whole  frame,  and  they  are  very  active  during  many 
hours  of  the  day.  The  greater  their  activity,  the  more 
rapidly  will  the  tissue  be  exhausted,  and  new  tissue 
take  its  place.  These  changes  require  the  oxidation  of 
much  food,  and  thereby  much  heat  is  developed.  Next 
to  the  muscles  are  the  secreting  glands.  Most  rapid 
changes  occur  in  these  glands  when  they  are  active,  all 
of  which  produce  heat.  The  liver  is  the  most  important 
gland  in  producing  heat.  The  changes  taking  place  in 


ANIMAL  HEAT.  225 

the  liver  cells  are  very  active  and  continuous.  The 
warmest  blood  in  the  body  is  found  just  as  it  leaves  the 
liver,  on  its  way  to  the  heart,  being  much  warmer  here 
than  when  it  enters  the  liver.  But  heat  is  generated  in 
every  organ  and  tissue  in  the  body ;  as  each  activity 
contributes  to  an  elevation  of  the  temperature. 

Cold-Blooded  and  Warm-Blooded  Animals.  Cold-blooded 
animals  are  those  whose  temperature  is  generally  about 
the  same  as  that  of  the  air  or  water  surrounding  them'. 
They  consume  little  oxygen,  and  therefore  a  small 
amount  of  heat  is  developed.  Frogs,  reptiles,  and  fishes 
have  a  low  temperature,  which  varies  at  times  between 
wide  limits.  When  the  tempefature  of  their  surround- 
ings is  increased  they  consume  more  oxygen,  and  thus 
develop  more  heat ;  while  if  the  temperature  be  lowered 
the  amount  of  oxygen  consumed  is  diminished,  and  the 
animal  heat  reduced. 

During  the  winter  the  frog  buries  himself  in  the  cold 
sand  at  the  bottom  of  the  water,  where  he  receives 
enough  oxygen  through  the  pores  of  the  skin  to  sustain 
life.  But  during  the  warmer  weather  of  summer  he 
comes  to  the  surface  to  fill  his  lungs  with  air ;  this  is 
necessary  in  order  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  more 
rapid  changes  in  the  tissues  of  his  body.  During  the 
winter  his  home  is  under  the  water,  but  during  the  sum- 
mer he  would  be  drowned  if  he  remained  in  water,  as 
the  more  rapid  oxidations  require  more  oxygen  than  can 
be  supplied  through  the  medium  of  the  skin. 

Warm-blooded  animals  are  those  whose  temperature 
is  generally  above  that  of  the  surrounding  air.  They 
maintain  a  remarkably  uniform  temperature  throughout 
the  heat  of  summer  and  the  cold  of  winter.  A  person 

15 


226  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

may  ride  a  long  distance  in  the  cold  air,  or  work  hard 
in  an  over-heated  room,  yet  the  temperature  of  his  body 
will  remain  almost  at  a  fixed  point. 

Temperature  of  the  Body.  The  thermometer  shows 
that  different  parts  of  the  body  vary  in  temperature. 
In  those  parts  where  rapid  changes  are  taking  place, 
and  where  oxidation  is  most  marked,  the  temperature 
is  much  higher  than  the  average  for  the  body.  The 
blood  is  constantly  passing  from  one  tissue  to  another, 
carrying  warmth  from  the  tissues  where  heat  is  being 
developed  to  other  tissues  where  it  is  being  lost ;  thus 
the  blood  tends  to  equalize  the  temperature  of  all  parts 
of  the  body.  The  temperature  is  ascertained  by  placing 
the  bulb  of  a  thermometer  under  the  person's  tongue. 

The  loss  and  production  of  heat  are  so  evenly  balanced 
that  the  temperature  of  the  healthy  adult  body  varies 
little  from  98J°  P.  This  is  maintained  with  only  slight 
variation  throughout  life.  So  accurately  is  this  ad- 
justed during  health  that  a  variation  of  more  than  a 
single  degree  denotes  some  disturbance  in  the  system  ; 
a  fall  of  two  degrees  below  the  normal  temperature  is 
considered  a  serious  matter  ;  while  a  severe  cold  may 
cause  it  to  rise  two  degrees  above  normal.  A  tempera- 
ture above  103°  denotes  a  high  fever ;  of  105°  a  severe 
attack ;  above  105°  is  most  alarming ;  while  recovery 
after  the  thermometer  has  recorded  110°  is  very  rare. 

The  normal  temperature  of  98|-°  F.  is  subject  to  some 
variations  within  narrow  limits.  There  are  quite  regu- 
lar variations  in  the  course  of  every  twenty-four  hours. 
The  temperature  continues  to  rise  during  the  day  until  it 
reaches  the  highest  point  from  five  to  eight  in  the  even- 
ing ;  then  it  continues  to  fall  during  the  night  until  from 


ANIMAL  HEAT.  227 

two  to  six  in  the  morning,  when  it  is  at  the  lowest. 
About  the  middle  of  the  forenoon,  or  about  three  hours 
after  the  morning  meal,  the  thermometer  should  record 
98|°  F.  The  difference  between  the  lowest  and  high- 
est points  reached  during  the  day  probably  does  not 
exceed  one  degree. 

The  Regulation  of  Heat.  The  question  now  arises, 
how  is  the  excess  of  heat  above  98^°  removed  from  the 
body  ?  The  body  would  soon  become  very  much  warmer 
were  not  some  means  provided  for  regulating  the  heat. 
It  is  estimated  an  adult  body  produces,  in  one  hour, 
enough  heat  to  raise  the  temperature  three  degrees.  If 
no  heat  were  given  off,  in  thirty-six  hours  it  would  reach 
the  boiling  point ;  hence  the  distribution  and  removal  o^ 
the  excess  of  heat  becomes  an  important  matter. 

The  two  principal  tissues  which  regulate  the  tempera- 
ture are  the  lungs  and  the  skin.  It  has  been  stated  that 
the  expired  air  is  warmer  than  the  inspired  air.  There- 
fore considerable  heat  is  required  to  produce  this  warmth, 
which  is  carried  out  of  the  body  with  each  expiration. 
The  evaporation  of  the  water  of  the  expired  air  —  the 
watery  vapor  —  also  produces  cold ;  indeed  the  loss  of 
heat  is  in  definite  proportion  to  the  amount  of  air  taken 
into  the  lungs  in  a  given  time.  The  rapid  breathing  of 
a  dog  after  running,  and  the  extra  flow  of  water  from 
his  mouth  are  illustrations  of  these  facts. 

But  the  work  of  the  skin  is  far  more  important,  being 
five  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  lungs,  in  this  particular. 
It  must  be  evident  that  the  more  freely  the  blood  passes 
through  the  skin,  thus  coming  under  the  influence  of 
the  cooler  surroundings  of  the  body,  so  much  the 
greater  will  be  the  loss  of  heat.  The  evaporation  of 


228  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

the  perspiration  results  also  in  a  great  loss  of  heat  to 
the  body. 

This  regulation  of  the  heat  is  well  illustrated  by  study- 
ing the  changes  which  take  place  during  some  active  ex- 
ercise. Muscular  contraction  gives  rise  to  heat ;  hence 
exercise  must  increase  the  bodily  temperature.  But  the 
thermometer  shows  no  such  change  ;  what  then  becomes 
of  the  heat  thus  produced  ?  The  exercise  causes  rapid 
breathing,  and  hence  more  loss  of  heat  through  the 
lungs ;  while  more  blood  is  sent  to  the  skip.,  where  its 
temperature  is  lowered.  The  exercise  also  causes  the 
skin  to  perspire  freely,  and  the  evaporation  of  the  water 
from  the  surface  of  the  body  results  in  a  great  loss  of 
heat.  Thus  we  find  that  the  extra  amount  of  heat 
caused  by  muscular  exertion  is  completely  lost  by  the 
increased  action  of  the  lungs  and  skin ;  and  as  a  result, 
the  temperature  of  the  body  remains  at  a  fixed  point. 

Effects  of  Lowering  the  Temperature.  The  body  is 
warmed  by  heat  generated  within  itself.  To  lower  its 
temperature,  it  is  only  necessary  to  abstract  the  heat 
faster  than  it  can  be  produced.  The  first  effect  of  this 
is  pain  in  the  more  exposed  parts.  The  face  and  ex- 
tremities u  ache  with  the  cold."  This  soon  passes  away 
and  the  skin  becomes  quite  insensible.  The  testimony 
of  individuals  who  have  been  rescued  from  freezing, 
even  after  they  were  insensible  from  the  cold,  is  that 
a  disposition  to  sleep  overtakes  them  soon  after  the  pain 
has  left  the  skin  ;  the  muscles  become  inactive ;  breath- 
ing is  slow  and  difficult ;  and  the  whole  nervous  system 
becomes  sluggish.  Finally,  the  desire  to  sleep  becomes 
irresistible,  and  in  a  short  time  death  ensues.  When 
rescued  from  a  freezing  condition,  it  is  found  that  res- 


ANIMAL   HEAT.  229 

piration  is  hardly  perceptible,  the  heart's  action  ex- 
tremely weak,  and  all  the  functions  of  the  body  nearly 
suspended. 

The  above  condition  is  very  similar  to  a  normal 
physiological  process  among  the  so-called  hibernating 
animals.  These  animals  go  to  sleep  at  the  approach 
of  winter,  and  do  not  waken  until  the  coming  of 
spring.  When  found,  buried  in  their  nests,  or  deep  un- 
derground, they  are  quite  insensible  and  immovable. 
Their  respiration  is  hardly  discernible,  and  their  bodily 
temperature  is  much  reduced.  The  oxidation  of  tissue 
is  very  slight,  and  the  animal  appears  to  live  by  using 
up  its  own  flesh,  —  entering  upon  sleep  well  supplied  witfc 
fatty  tissue  and  awakening  in  the  spring  very  poor. 

Effects  of  Raising  the  Temperature.  When  the  animal 
heat  is  raised  a  number  of  degrees,  as  in  fevers,  the 
effects  are  quite  the  reverse  of  those  produced  by  cold. 
In  fevers,  the  pulse  and  the  respiration  are  increased  in 
frequency,  and  instead  of  a  feeling  of  comfort  and  sleep, 
there  is  often  much  distress  and  wakefulness.  Increased 
temperature  appears  to  hasten  the  normal  changes  tak- 
ing place  in  the  tissues ;  oxidation  is  more  rapid ;  the 
tissues  are  more  quickly  exhausted,  and  the  vitality  is 
lowered. 

Winter  and  Summer.  The  moderate  cold  of  winter  im- 
parts a  feeling  of  vigor  and  stimulates  the  whole  system. 
The  cool  air  excites  a  desire  to  run,  and  to  exercise  the 
whole  body ;  this  activity  adds  to  the  amount  of  heat 
necessary  to  resist  the  cold.  Without  exercise,  the  in- 
ternal heat  must  be  preserved  by  additional  clothing,  or 
the  depressing  effects  of  cold  will  be  experienced.  Cold 
weather  brings  a  good  appetite ;  the  extra  amount  of 


230  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF  HEALTH, 

food  is  so  much  more  fuel,  contributing  to  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  animal  heat ;  thus  we  learn  that  a  healthy 
body  always  demands  more  food  during  the  winter  than 
during  tfye  summer.  Muscular  activity,  extra  clothing,* 
and  more  food  enable  the  body  to  resist  the  cold  and 
still  maintain  its  average  temperature.  During  the  heat 
of  summer  less  food  is  required  and  more  liquids  are 
used,  the  perspiration  is  increased,  and  the  clothing  is 
lighter,  all  of  which  tend  to  diminish  the  supply  of  heat 
and  increase  the  means  for  its  escape. 

The  Effects  of  Alcohol  on  the  Temperature.  There  is  a 
general  belief  among  a  large  class  of  people  that  alcohol 
warms  the  body ;  so  they  naturally  conclude  that  it  is 
one  of  the  best  remedies  to  take  before  beginning  a  long 
;'ourney  in  the  cold.  If  alcohol  is  able  to  raise  the  tem- 
perature of  the  body,  it  might  often  prove  a  most  desir- 
able agent.  But  has  it  this  power  ?  To  fully  answer 
the  question  it  is  necessary  to  understand  both  the 
primary  and  secondary  effects  of  this  poison.  Under- 
standing these,  the  reader  will  be  able  to  draw  his  own 
conclusions. 

One  of  the  first  effects  of  alcohol  is  to  paralyze  the 
nerves  which  terminate  in  the  walls  of  the  small  blood 
vessels,  and  which  control  their  size.  As  a  result,  the 
vessels  distend  and  the  whole  system  of  capillaries  be- 
comes filled  with  an  extra  supply  of  blood.  The  minute 
blood  vessels  of  the  skin  become  distended  with  this  ex- 
tra supply.  Now  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  blood 
from  the  interior  of  the  body  is  much  warmer  than  that 
near  the  surface ;  therefore  when  an  extra  amount  of 
warm  blood  flows  to  tke  surface,  it  makes  the  skin  feel 
much  warmer.  As  the  outside  of  the  body  feels  warmer, 


ANIMAL   HEAT.  231 

a  person  is  led  to  believe  that  the  warmth  extends 
throughout  the  whole  system.  This  is  physiological, 
and  just  what  we  should  expect.  But  we  know  that  the 
blood  is  cooled  in  passing  through  the  skin,  therefore,  if 
more  than  the  usual  amount  of  blood  be  sent  to  the  sur- 
face, then  an  unusual  amount  of  heat  will  be  given  off. 
As  a  result  of  this  extra  loss  of  heat,  the  blood  returns 
to  the  interior  of  the  body  much  lowered  in  temperature, 
and  cooling  all  the  tissues  with  which  it  comes  in  contact. 

The  period  during  which  the  skin  feels  warmer  is 
very  brief,  while  the  period  of  cold  following  it  is  of 
much  longer  duration.  During  the  second  period  there 
is  a  rapid  fall  in  the  temperature.  This  is  physiological 
also,  and  just  what  should  be  expected.  In  some  of  the 
lower  animals  the  decline  may  be  very  great,  reaching 
as  many  as  five  degrees  in  birds,  and  three  degrees  in 
dogs.  In  man  the  decline  is  often  as  great  as  two  de- 
grees, in  some  cases  even  more.  This  period  of  decrease 
may  pass  off  in  a  few  hours,  if  the  amount  of  alcohol 
taken  be  small ;  but  if  the  poisoning  be  sufficient  to 
cause  prolonged  sleep,  several  days  may  be  required  to 
bring  the  temperature  up  again  to  its  normal  degree. 

From  these  facts  it  appears  that  the  brief  period 
of  apparent  increase  of  heat  is  followed  by  a  longer  one 
during  which  the  temperature  of  the  body  is  actually  re- 
duced. In  this  condition  the  body  is  less  able  to  resist 
the  cold,  and  so  becomes  especially  liable  to  influenza, 
bronchitis,  pneumonia,  and  allied  affections;  while  re- 
covery from  their  attacks  will  be  more  tedious  and 
doubtful.  In  other  words  the  resisting  power  of  the 
body  against  all  invading  diseases  is  greatly  weakened 
by  the  use  of  alcoholic  beverages. 


232  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 

There  is  an  abundance  of  testimony  from  men  who 
have  been  exposed  to  extreme  cold,  to  show  that  alcohol 
increases  the  suffering  and  danger  of  such  exposure. 
Explorers  in  Arctic  regions  and  travelers  in  cold  coun- 
tries are  perfectly  agreed  on  this  question.  Their  testi- 
mony is  all  to  the  effect  that  the  use  of  alcohol  in  cold 
countries  is  extremely  hazardous.  The  same  principle 
applies  to  exposure  to  unusual  cold  in  more  temperate 
climates,  and  shows  the  fallacy  of  drinking  alcoholic 
liquors  to  "  warm  one  up "  or  to  aid  in  keeping  warm 
on  a  cold  day.  They  only  make  exposure  to  cold  more 
dangerous.  The  men  who  never  use  alcohol  bear  such 
exposures  much  better  and  do  their  work  more  easily 
than  those  who  take  it. 


QUESTIONS.      „ 

1.  Give  some  of  the  sources  of  animal  heat. 

2.  Where  is  found  the  warmest  blood  in  the  body? 

3.  Which  are  the  cold-blooded  animals?     Name  some. 

4.  Which  are  the  warm-blooded  animals? 

5.  In  what  parts  of  the  body  is  the  temperature  the  highest? 

6.  How  does  the  blood  tend  to  equalize  the  temperature? 

7.  What  is  the  temperature  of  the  healthy  adult  body  ? 

8.  How  much  heat  does  the  body  produce  in  one  hour?     In 
thirty-six  hours  ? 

9.  What  two  tissues  principally  regulate  the  temperature? 

10.  Explain  the  part  performed  by  the  lungs 

11.  How  does  the  skin  regulate  the  temperature? 

12-  Give  some  of  the  effects  of  lowering  the  temperature. 

13.  This  is  similar  to  what  normal  process? 

14.  Describe  the  effects  from  raising  the  temperature  ? 

15.  What  is  one  of  the  first  effects  of  alcohol  on  the  blood  vessels? 

16.  What  is  the  result  of  this  first  effect? 

17.  Does  alcohol  aid  in  resisting  cold? 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  TOBACCO.        233 


CHAPTER   XXII. 

THE  EFFECTS  OF   TOBACCO. 

WE  believe  that  the  desire  among  boys  to  be  men 
and  to  do  manly  things  is  so  great  that  if  they  knew 
the  dwarfing  and  stunting  effects  of  tobacco,  they  would 
never  indulge  in  its  use.  For  this  purpose,  therefore, 
we  are  anxious  that  the  exact  truth  be  clearly  stated. 

Our  objections  to  the  smoking  of  cigarettes,  or  to- 
bacco in  any  form,  are  as  follows  :  — 

1.  It  Lessens  the   Natural   Appetite   for  Food   and  In- 
jures Digestion.     We  have  already  discussed  the  growth 
of  cells,  and  the  important  part  they  play  in  all  the 
processes  of  life.     These  rapidly  changing  cells  must  be 
fed ;  but  if  the  appetite  be  poor  and  digestion  bad,  then 
surely  cellular  action  must  be  greatly  affected.     Such 
proves  to  be  the  case,  for  the  early  use  of  tobacco  often 
checks  the  growth  of  the  body,  so  that  it  never  reaches 
the  height  and  full  development  it  would  have  reached, 
had  it  not  been  so  poisoned. 

2.  It  Seriously  Affects  the  Nervous  System.  This  is  shown 
by  its  effects  on  the  heart.     The  unsteady  and  rapid 
beat  leads  to  dizziness  and  rush  of  blood  to  the  head. 
The  sleep  is  disturbed  with  distressing  dreams,  and  the 
morning   finds   the   body    unrefreshed.      The   brain   is 
checked  in  its  development,  and  is  unable  at  all  times 
to  do  its  best  work.     The  testimony  of  many  eminent 


234  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

medical  men,  together  with  the  statements  of  public 
men  of  wide  observation,  show  unquestionably  that 
Tobacco  impaifs  the  Mental  Powers.  Could  a  more 
serious  charge  be  brought  against  it  ?  The  evidence  is 
strong  and  unanswerable.  Its  moderate  use  by  the 
young  weakens  the  ability  to  think,  while  its  immoderate 
use  may  eventually  destroy  the  mind. 

3.  It  Leads  to  the  Opium  Habit.     It  is  a  startling  fact 
that  some  of  the  brands  of  cigarettes  have  opium  mixed 
with  them.     The  amount  is  small,  —  the  tobacco  may  be 
only  moistened  with  some  weak  juice  of  the  poppy ;  but 
the  active  principle  of  the  opium  is  there,  and  it  will 
surely  perform  its  poisonous  work.     It  is  to  be  feared 
that  if  our  young  men  continue  the  use  of  cigarettes 
we  shall  soon  see,  as  a  legitimate  result,  a  large  number 
of  adults  addicted  to  the  opium  habit. 

4.  It  Creates  a  Craving  for  Strong  Drink.     This  is  an- 
other legitimate  result  of  smoking.     It  is  a  result  which 
could  have  been  foretold  simply  by  physiological  reason- 
ing.    That  smoking  leads  to  drinking  is  no  longer  a 
theory,  for  the  wisest  observers  have  testified  that  such 
is  the   case.      There  are  both  primary  and   secondary 
reasons  why -this  result  follows.     It  follows  as  the  pri- 
mary effect  of  tobacco  on  the  mouth,  throat,  and  stomach  ; 
the  mouth  and  throat  are  dry,  and  there  is  a  peculiar 
sinking  sensation  at  the  stomach ;  these  often  tempt  the 
smoker   to    drink.      It   is    also   to   be   noted    that   the 
majority   of   those    who   use  alcoholic  drinks  also  use 
tobacco ;  therefore  when  a  person  accepts  an  invitation 
to  smoke  he  is  more  likely  to  be  thrown  into  company 
with  those  who  drink. 

The   secondary  reason   is   that   as    tobacco    weakens 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  TOBACCO.        235 

the  mental  faculties  and  lowers  the  moral  tone,  so  it 
makes  the  temptation  to  drink  more  difficult  to  resist. 
Smokers  yield  more  readily  to  an  invitation  to  drink. 
They  accept  the  "  treat "  to  a  cigar  or  a  cigarette  ;  and 
later  the  acceptance  of  a  "  treat "  to  strong  drink  be- 
comes much  easier.  Tobacco  manufacturers  have  lately 
declared  that  since  the  more  stringent  temperance  laws 
of  Canada  have  been  enforced,  there  has  been  a  vast  re- 
duction in  the  amount  of  tobacco  consumed. 

5.  Cigarette  Papers  often  contain  Arsenic.     The  effects 
of  such  a  drug  on  a  healthy  organism  cannot  be  other- 
wise than  injurious. 

6.  It  is  a  Filthy  and  Offensive  Habit      The   laws   of 
ordinary  politeness  are  violated  daily  by  those  who  use 
tobacco  in  any  form.     A  noted  French  lady,  when  once 
asked  if  it  would  be  offensive  to  her  to  have  gentlemen 
smoke  in  her  presence,  curtly  replied,  "  No  gentleman 
ever  smokes  in  my  presence."     The  man  who  smokes 
becomes   completely   saturated   with    the    strong    odor. 
His  clothing,  his  living  room,  and  even  his  breath  are 
charged   with   it.      It   is   astonishing   to    see   how  the 
smoke  of  tobacco  will  nearly  strangle  the  young  lady  as 
she  sits  beside  her  friend  in  the  carriage,  or  as  she  walks 
by  his  side  in  the  street,  and  yet  she  quietly  submits  to 
the  impolite  treatment.     Travel  where  you  will,  on  the 
road,  in  the  railway  car,  on  the  sidewalk,  in  the  street 
cars,  in  halls,  everywhere,  you  can  see  the  traces  of  this 
filthy  and  offensive  habit. 

7.  It  is  Expensive.    The  purchasing  of  tobacco  requires 
money  which  might  be  otherwise  spent  for  personal  com- 
forts and  pleasures,  or  for  public  and  benevolent  enter- 
prises.    The  trouble  is  that  the  young  man  does  not 


236  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

realize  what  it  is  to  spend  five  or  ten  cents  each  day. 
Such  small  sums,  placed  at  compound  interest,  grow  into 
large  figures  by  the  time  old  age  is  reached.  It  would  be 
far  better  to  invest  these  savings  in  books,  newspapers, 
lectures,  concerts,  or  traveling. 

8.  It  is  Unlawful.  The  statesmen  of  our  country  are 
so  fully  impressed  with  the  fact  that  the  coming  genera- 
tion is  likely  to  be  weak  in  body  and  mind  unless  the 
use  of  tobacco  by  the  young  be  checked,  that  at  this 
time  in  twenty-nine  States  there  are  stringent  laws  for- 
bidding the  furnishing  of  cigarettes  or  tobacco  in  any 
form  to  minors  under  certain  ages.  There  are  also  at 
this  time  in  thirty-five  States  and  in  all  the  territories, 
laws  requiring  instruction  to  be  given  to  all  .pupils  in  the 
public  schools  on  the  nature  and  effects  of  tobacco,  as 
well  as  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  other  narcotics. 

In  New  York  and  Connecticut,  it  is  not  only  un- 
lawful to  furnish  tobacco  to  persons  under  sixteen 
years  of  age,  but  it  is  also  unlawful  for  such  persons 
to  smoke  or  use  tobacco  in  any  public  place.  In 
Massachusetts  and  Indiana,  a  person  can  be  fined  for 
advising  or  persuading  any  one  under  sixteen  years  of 
age  to  smoke  or  chew  tobacco.  In  the  District  of  Col- 
umbia, 257  physicians,  524  officers  and  teachers  of  the 
public  schools,  all  the  trustees  of  the  public  schools, 
and  86  pastors  of  churches,  petitioned  the  51st  Congress 
for  the  passage  of  a  bill  prohibiting  the  selling,  giving, 
or  furnishing  tobacco  in  any  form  to  persons  under  six- 
teen years  of  age.  Individuals  can  now  walk  the  streets 
of  the  Capital  of  the  nation  and  not  see  a  single  news- 
boy or  other  young  lad  with  a  cigarette  in  his  mouth. 
The  simple  fact  that  the  representative  men  of  a  whole 


THE   EFFECTS  OF   TOBACCO.  237 

nation,  in  Congress  assembled,  should  pass  such  a  bill, 
shows  in  itself  that  a  grave  danger  was  discerned,  and 
that  the  time  had  come  for  the  remedy  to  be  applied. 

9.  It  Lowers  Scholarship.  The  minister  of  Public 
Instruction  of  Paris  has  forbidden  the  use  of  tobacco  by 
students  of  the  public  schools.  Tobacco  is  prohibited  in 
the  military  and  naval  schools  of  the  United  States 
Government. 

Notice  the  following  testimonies,  which  could  be  mul- 
tiplied many  times :  - 

"  In  our  thirty  years  experience  in  teaching  more  than 
fifty  thousand  young  people  we  have  found  the  effects  of 
this  narcotic  to  be  premature  age,  shattered  nerves,  men- 
tal weakness,  stunted  growth,  and  general  physical  and 
moral  degeneracy ;  and  therefore  we  now  decline  to  re- 
ceive  into  our  institution  any  who  use  this  noxious  weed." 

Such  is  the  statement  of  Henry  C.  and  Sara  A.  Spen- 
cer, principal  and  vice-principal  of  the  Spencerian  Busi- 
ness College. 

Dr.  Willard  Parker  says,  "  Tobacco  is  ruinous  in  our 
schools  and  colleges,  dwarfing  body  and  mind." 

The  President  of  the  Baltimore  Academy  of  Medicine 
says,  "  The  effects  of  tobacco  on  school-boys  are  so 
marked  as  not  to  be  open  for  discussion." 

In  an  examination  for  admission  to  the  Free  College 
of  New  York,  seventy-one  per  cent  of  the  girls  who 
applied  were  passed,  but  only  forty-eight  per  cent  of  the 
boys.  The  report  attributes  the  smaller  per  cent  of  the 
latter  to  the  stupefying  effects  of  tobacco. 

A  graduating  class  in  Yale  College  was  divided  into 
four  parts  according  to  scholarship,  —  the  best  scholars 
in  the  first  division,  and  the  poorest  in  the  fourth.  In 


238  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

the  first  division  twenty-five  per  cent  used  tobacco ;  in 
the  second,  forty-eight  per  cent ;  in  the  third,  seventy  per 
cent ;  and  in  the  fourth,  eighty-five  per  cent. 

Dr.  J.  W.  Seaver,  of  Yale  College,  has  made  some  in- 
teresting observations  on  this  subject.  He  says  no  young 
man  can  use  tobacco  without  injuring  himself  seriously. 
Of  the  junior  students  who  received  the  highest  appoint- 
ments, ninety-five  per  cent  did  not  use  tobacco ;  of  those 
who  received  the  next  highest  appointments,  eighty-seven 
and  one  half  per  cent  did  not  use  it ;  while  of  all  who 
received  appointments  of  some  kind,  eighty-four  and 
three-tenths  per  cent  did  not  use  tobacco.  The  per  cent 
of  non-users  among  those  who  received  no  honors  what- 
ever was  much  less.  In  other  words,  the  highest  honors 
of  a  class  are  almost  exclusively  carried  off  by  those  who 
do  not  use  tobacco ;  while  those  who  remain  lowest  in 
scholarship  are  almost  invariably  addicted  to  the  habit. 
This  is  in  accord  with  the  testimony  of  a  large  number 
of  teachers  of  wide  experience,  who  positively  assert  that 
the  pupils  who  use  tobacco  are  not  found  at  or  near  the 
head  of  the  class.  Tobacco  and  scholarship  are  no 
friends.  They  cannot  go  together. 

The  President  of  Union  College  says,  "  The  use  of 
this  poisonous  narcotic,  next  to  intoxicating  liquor,  is 
more  destructive  to  the  health  of  our  youth  than  any 
other  agent." 

The  Emperor  Louis  Napoleon,  in  1862,  issued  an 
edict  forbidding  the  use  of  tobacco  in  all  the  national 
institutions,  because  he  was  satisfied  from  investigation 
in  the  schools  and  colleges  that  the  average  standing  in 
both  scholarship  and  character  was  lower  among  those 
who  used  tobacco  than  among  those  who  did  not. 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  TOBACCO.        239 

10.  It  Lowers  the  Moral  Tone.  This  is  most  marked  in 
the  deceit  practised  by  boys  in  their  efforts  to  conceal 
the  fact  of  their  using  tobacco  from  their  parents.  They 
will  positively  deny  its  use,  and  resort  to  all  manner  of 
deception  to  account  for  the  unmistakable  odor.  Boys 
who  would  not  be  guilty  of  telling  a  falsehood  on  other 
matters  soon  find  it  easy  to  lie  about  this  habit.  They 
hide  their  cigarettes  ;  they  go  away  from  home  to  smoke 
them  ;  and  in  all  their  manners  show  that  they  are  in 
a  bad  business.  What  result  can  follow  such  falsifying 
and  deception  other  than  a  lowering  of  the  moral  tone  ? 

The  ten  charges  thus  brought  against  tobacco  are  of 
such  a  character  that  there  is  but  one  conclusion  to  the 
matter.  It  is  this  :  The  use  of  tobacco  greatly  endan- 
gers and  impedes  health,  happiness,  and  prosperity. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  How  does  tobacco  affect  the  appetite  and  digestion  ? 

2.  How  does  it  affect  the  heart?     The  mental  powers? 

3.  Is  there  danger  it  may  lead  to  the  opium  habit ?     Why? 

4.  Give  a  primary  reason  why  smoking  leads  to  drinking. 

5.  Give  a  secondary  reason  why  this  is  true. 

6.  What  poison  is  sometimes  found  in  cigarette  papers? 

7.  Are  politeness  and  neatness  aided  by  the  tobacco  habit? 

8.  Is  it  an  expensive  habit? 

9.  What  is  said  about  its  being  unlawful  ? 

10.  Is  tobacco  an  aid  to  scholarship? 

11.  What  proof  have  we  that  it  affects  the  morals? 


240  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 


CHAPTER   XXIII. 

WHAT  TOBACCO   COSTS:  IN   BODY;  IN 

MIND;   IN   MORALS;   AND 

IN  MONEY. 

What  it  Costs  the  Body.  It  is  not  natural  for  man  to 
smoke.  There  is  not  an  animal  in  a  state  of  nature 
that  uses  tobacco  in  any  form,  unless  exceptions  are 
made  in  favor  of  the  tobacco-worm,  living  ,on  the  green 
leaves  of  the  plant,  and  a  species  of  wild  goat  found  in 
Africa.  That  it  is  not  natural  for  man  is  evident  from 
the  shock  to  the  system  which  follows  its  first  use, 
resulting  in  nausea,  vomiting,  and  great  depression. 
Upon  experiencing  these  symptoms  the  first  Napoleon 
exclaimed,  "  Oh,  the  swine  !  my  stomach  turns  !  "  Man 
is  the  only  animal  using  this  vegetable.  How  different, 
in  this  respect,  is  tobacco  from  other  vegetables.  If 
we  eat  half  of  a  potato,  apple,  carrot,  beet,  or  any  other 
vegetable,  raw  or  cooked,  and  then  throw  away  the 
other  half,  how  eager  are  many  of  the  lower  animals  for 
it !  If  the  horse  and  dog  do  not  care  for  it,  then  hosts 
of  ants  and  flies  claim  it  as  their  own.  But  not  so  with 
the  half-smoked  cigar,  carelessly  thrown  to  the  ground. 
The  horse,  dog,  ants,  flies,  even  all  forms  of  animal  life 
below  man  shun  it,  and  there  it  remains  where  thrown, 
until  the  street-sweeper  or  the  storms  have  removed  it. 
Man  alone  appears  to  care  for  it.  Tobacco  is  a  disease- 


WHAT   TOBACCO   COSTS.  241 

producing  instead  of  a  disease-curing  plant.  In  the 
preceding  chapters  attention  has  been  called  to  the  ill 
effect  of  this  drug  on  the  growing  body.  It  has  been 
shown  that  its  effects  on  the  appetite  and  digestion 
result  in  checking  the  growth  and  in  producing  a  poorly 
developed  organism.  Chronic  sore  throat,  with  its 
accompanying  deafness,  are  often  a  part  of  the  smok- 
er's complaints.  The  palpitation  of  the  heart,  the  trem- 
bling of  the  hands,  and  the  excessive  nervousness  all 
testify  that  tobacco  is  used  at  an  immense  waste  of  vital 
energy. 

But  let  us  listen  to  the  teachings  of  some  of  our  emi- 
nent writers  on  this  subject.  Below  are  given  a  few  ex- 
tracts, a  number  of  which  were  taken  from  the  writings 
of  "  Mcta  Lander,"  —  Mrs.  Margaret  Woods  Lawrence, 
of  Baltimore,  —  entitled  "  The  Tobacco  Problem."  The 
gifted  author  has  collected  a  vast  amount  of  material 
bearing  on  this  important  subject.  The  quotations 
represent  the  convictions  of  men  of  high  standing  and 
acknowledged  ability. 

Dr.  Ferguson  :  "  I  believe  that  no  one  who  smokes 
tobacco  before  the  bodily  powers  are  developed  ever 
makes  a  strong  vigorous  man." 

Many  leading  physicians  of  Philadelphia:  "  Cigarette 
smoking  is  one  of  the  vilest  and  most  destructive  evils 
that  ever  befell  the  youth  of  any  country  ;  its  direct 
tendency  is  to  a  deterioration  of  the  race/' 

Prof.  H.  H.  Seerley  :  "  Boys  that  begin  the  habit  at 
an  early  age  are  stunted  physically,  and  never  arrive  at 
normal  bodily  development." 

Horace  Greeley :  "  Show  me  a  drunkard  that  does  not 
use  tobacco,  and  I  will  show  you  a  white  blackbird." 

16 


242  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 

Medical  Director  U.  S.  Navy :  "  The  future  health 
and  usefulness  of  the  lads  in  our  naval  schools  require 
the  absolute  interdiction  of  tobacco  in  any  form." 

Dr.  Copland,  F.  R.  S. :  "  Tobacco  creates  a  thirst,  to  re- 
move which  alcoholic  stimulants  are  often  resorted  to." 

Dr.  Cowan :  "  The  exceptions  are  very  rare  when  a 
user  of  tobacco  in  any  of  its  forms  is  not  ultimately  led 
to  use  alcoholic  liquors." 

Gladstone  "  detests  smoking."  Haeckel :  "  I  have  never 
smoked."  Ruskin  u  abhors  the  practice  of  smoking." 

Charles  Reade  :  "  I  have  seen  many  people  the  worse 
for  it,  and  never  saw  anybody  perceptibly  the  better 
for  it." 

Dr.  Willard  Parker :  "  Tobacco  is  doing  more  harm 
in  the  world  than  rum.  It  is  destroying  our  race." 

Medical  Examiner  U.  S.  Navy :  "  One  out  of  every 
one  hundred  applicants  for  enlistment  is  rejected  be- 
cause of  irritable  heart,  arising  from  tobacco  poisoning." 

Dr.  Bowditch  :  "  A  man  with  a  tobacco  heart  is  as 
badly  off  as  a  drunkard." 

The  famous  marksman,  Carver  :  "  I  have  never  tasted 
intoxicating  drinks,  nor  do  I  use  tobacco  in  any  form." 

The  winner  of  the  international  boat  race,  Han- 
Ian  :  "  The  best  physical  performances  can  only  be 
secured  through  absolute  abstinence  from  alcohol  and 
tobacco." 

Supt.  of  N.  Y.  Insane  Asylum  :  "  Tobacco  has  done 
more  to  cause  insanity  than  spirituous  liquors." 

Supt.  Insane  Asylum  at  Worcester,  Mass. :  "  That 
tobacco  produces  insanity,  I  am  fully  convinced." 

In  four  insane  asylums  there  were  294  cases  of  "  in- 
sanity from  the  use  of  alcohol."  Of  these  294,  it  was 


WHAT   TOBACCO   COSTS.  243 

ascertained  that  206  were  led  to  intemperance  by  the 
use  of  tobacco. 

The  German  Government  has  ordered  the  police  to 
forbid  boys  under  sixteen  years  of  age  smoking  in  the 
streets,  because  of  its  evil  effects  on  mind  and  body. 

These  facts  are  sufficient  to  warrant  us  in  stating  that 
tobacco  costs  the  body  its  best  development  and  its  per- 
fect health. 

What  it  Costs  the  Mind.  Reference  has  already  been 
made,  in  the  preceding  chapter,  to  the  effects  of  tobacco 
on  the  general  scholarship.  Some  further  testimony  on 
this  point  may  serve  to  more  forcibly  present  the  truth. 

In  Paris  "  it  is  shown  that  smokers  have  proved 
themselves,  in  the  various  competitive  examinations,  far 
inferior  to  others." 

Dr.  Constan,  of  Paris,  concludes  a  long  article  as  fol- 
lows :  "  The  influence  of  tobacco  clogs  all  the  intellectual 
faculties,  and  especially  the  memory ;  and  the  injury  is 
greater  in  proportion  to  the  youth  of  the  individual." 

Ex-Senator  Doolittle :  "  I  believe  that  the  mental 
force,  the  power  of  labor  and  endurance  of  our  pro- 
fession, is  decreased  at  least  twenty-five  per  cent  by  the 
use  of  tobacco." 

Professor  Lizars,  of  Edinburgh  :  "  It  is  painful  to 
contemplate  how  many  promising  youths  must  be  en- 
feebled in  their  minds  and  bodies,  before  they  arrive  at 
manhood,  by  the  use  of  tobacco." 

With  these  facts  before  us,  it  is  safe  to  assert  that 
tobacco  costs  the  mind  its  highest  development  and  its 
most  brilliant  achievements. 

What  it  Costs  the  Morals.  The  use  of  tobacco  is  an 
illustration  of  the  most  supreme  selfishness.  One  per- 


244  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

son  only  enjoys  it,  and  even  that  enjoyment  is  usually 
at  the  expense  of  those  about  him.  The  breath,  the 
clothing,  the  air  around  the  smoker,  all  are  saturated 
with  the  tobacco-poison.  The  fact  that  generous  and 
kind  men  will  continue  in  such  a  purely  selfish  practice 
is  simply  an  illustration  of  the  truth  that  the  drug  has 
so  affected  their  sense  of  propriety  as  to  render  them 
unaware  of  their  true  position.  If  men  must  smoke 
they  should  confine  their  operations  to  their  own  private 
quarters,  where  as  few  as  possible  must  suffer,  rather 
than  be  continually  puffing  their  cigars  in  the  faces  of 
enduring  women  and  inoffensive  children. 

Upon  entering  depots,  halls,  and  other  public  places, 
we  are  often  greeted  with  the  sign,  u  No  Smoking."  It 
seems  to  be  absolutely  necessary  to  give  stern  commands 
to  men  not  to  smoke  in  these  places  where  women  and 
children  gather.  Yet  why  do  we  not  see  commands 
like  these  ?  "  Do  not  crowd  the  children."  "  Do  not 
thrust  the  sick  out  into  the  cold."  In  other  words, 
were  it  not  for  the  effects  of  tobacco  on  the  moral  sense, 
blunting  its  keener  qualities,  there  would  be  no  need  of 
asking  men  not  to  smoke  in  any  place  where  the  rights 
of  others  to  the  free,  pure  air  are  universal. 

We  positively  declare  that  a  man  has  no  more  right  to 
put  tobacco  smoke  into  the  air  which  we  are  about  to  take 
into  our  system,  than  he  has  to  put  some  disagreeable 
drug  into  the  water  which  we  are  just  about  to  drink. 
Pure  air  is  one  of  our  inherited  gifts,  and  he  who  wil- 
fully poisons  it,  or  makes  it  disagreeable  for  his  fellow 
beings,  is  guilty  of  no  small  breach  of  common  civility. 

On  the  morals  of  the  youth,  tobacco  has  a  most 
marked  effect.  It  is  probable  that  the  indifference  of 


WHAT  TOBACCO   COSTS.  245 

the  adult  smoker  is  largely  due  to  the  early  use  of  the 
cigar  or  cigarette,  as  during  the  early  years  of  life  all 
the  faculties  are  so  much  more  easily  affected.  Deceit 
seems  to  be  a  boon  companion  of  the  boy  and  his  ciga- 
rette. To  have  the  morals  of  our  young  men  reach 
their  highest  attainments,  the  cigarette  should  be  ban- 
ished from  our  midst.  What  do  some  of  our  writers 
and  public  men  say  on  this  subject? 

Jackson  Jarves  says,  "  Whatever  the  benefit  or  harm 
the  use  of  tobacco  may  do  the  consumer's  body,  its  com- 
mon tendency  is  to  render  the  mind  indifferent  to  the 
well-being  of  his  neighbors." 

Dr.  Parker :  "  Tobacco  demoralizes.  It  makes  a  man 
careless  about  his  hair ;  he  lets  his  nails  go  unclean  • 
his  clothes  are  soiled,  and  he  is  generally  untidy." 

Professor  Stuart,  of  Andover  :  "  It  creates  a  nervous 
irritability,  and  thus  operates  on  the  temper  and  moral 
character  of  men." 

Professor  Mead,  of  Oberlin :  u  The  tobacco  habit 
tends  to  deaden  the  sense  of  honor ;  and  none  are  more 
likely  to  practise  deception  unscrupulously  than  those 
who  use  the  weed." 

The  President  of  Wisconsin  State  University  :  "There 
are  few  spectacles  giving  a  more  disgraceful  impression 
of  our  civilization  than  that  of  a  lad  sporting  a  cigar  or 
cigarette,  in  imitation  of  the  bad  habits  of  those  older 
in  years  than  himself." 

Superintendent  of  the  Reform  School,  at  Westboro', 
Mass. :  "  All  boys  sent  here  have  been  the  users  of 
tobacco." 

Chancellor  Sims,  of  Syracuse  University  :  "  The  to- 
bacco-habit is  deteriorating  to  the  one  indulging  in  it." 


246  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH, 

Dr.  Harris  :  "  There  is  not  another  article  of  luxury 
that  so  secretly  and  yet  so  surely  saps  all  the  founda- 
tions of  manliness  and  virtue." 

From  these  statements  we  can  but  draw  the  con- 
clusion that  he  who  indulges  in  tobacco  runs  the  risk 
of  having  the  highest  and  best  attributes  of  his  nature 
brought  under  its  benumbing  power." 

What  it  Costs  in  Money.  The  financial  view  of  the 
tobacco  problem  merits  careful  attention,  not  only  be- 
cause the  money  expended  for  the  cigars  or  cigarettes 
might  be  better  used  in  the  purchase  of  books,  but  also 
because  habits  of  thrift  and  economy  formed  in  the 
young  make  no  small  part  of  a  man's  future  success. 
Such  habits  do  more  than  make  a  saving  of  money ; 
they  teach  that  time  itself  is  precious,  and  that  rapidly 
passing  hours  can  never  be  recalled.  The  normal  phys- 
iological man  is  economical  of  his  money,  his  time, 
his  mental  powers,  and  of  all  his  endowment.  He  is 
temperate  in  all  things.  He  should  have  immense  re- 
serve-forces which  he  draws  upon  only  at  times  of  great 
peril  and  need. 

Later  in  school  life  our  readers  may  find  themselves 
hard  at  work  over  some  of  the  great  questions  of  polit- 
ical economy.  In  fact,  even  now  they  are  aware  there 
is  much  unrest  in  the  land  over  the  question  of  capital 
and  labor.  A  small  number  of  people  are  becoming 
richer  and  richer,  and  controlling  great  interests  and. 
thousands  of  men,  while  a  large  number  of  people  work 
very  hard,  year  after  year,  and  yet  do  not  enjoy  the 
ordinary  comforts  of  life,  to  say  nothing  of  owning  a 
home  of  their  own.  Often  it  is  true  that  sickness  and 
misfortune  keep  the  most  economical  persons  from 


WHAT   TOBACCO   COSTS.  247 

laying  aside  any  part  of  their  hard-earned  wages.  But 
we  desire  to  show,  not  only  that  the  use  of  tobacco 
injures  the  consumer,  but  also  that  the  money  thus 
wasted  might  bring  many  additional  comforts  to  him 
and  to  his  friends,  thus  contributing  much  toward  the 
general  prosperity  of  the  country.  True  patriotism, 
therefore,  demands  that  boys  should  not  use  tobacco. 
A  few  lines  will  show  how  expensive  is  the  tobacco- 
habit,  and  how  important  a  part  it  plays  in  preventing 
many  of  our  hard-working  people  from  enjoying  more 
of  the  comforts  and  pleasures  of  life. 

The  secret  of  the  trouble  lies  in  the  fact  that  we  fail 
to  realize  how  soon  cents  makes  dimes,  and  dimes 
make  dollars.  Remember  that,  even  at  the  rate  of  six 
per  cent  compound  interest,  money  will  double  itself  in 
twelve  years,  while  if  the  rate  be  ten  per  cent,  money 
will  double  in  seven  years.  This  doubling  of  money, 
without  any  apparent  effort  on  our  part,  is  one  of  the 
surprising  things  of  finance.  Let  us  illustrate  this 
principle. 

Suppose  a  boy  should  begin  the  use  of  tobacco  at  ten 
years  of  age,  and  suppose  he  purchases  only  one  cent's 
worth  of  tobacco  each  day,  until  he  is  forty  years  of 
age ;  now  had  he  received  seven  per  cent  compound 
interest  for  the  money  thus  expended,  how  much  would 
his  tobacco  bill  represent?  $350.  Neither  boys  nor 
.men,  though,  stop  at  a  cent's  worth  of  tobacco  a  day. 
Suppose  he  used  only  five  cents  a  day  for  his  tobacco 
during  all  these  years,  still  this,  at  the  above  rate  of  in- 
terest, would  amount  to  over  $1700 ;  surely  a  good  pres- 
ent to  receive  on  your  fortieth  birthday !  But  suppose 
the  young  man  is  now  twenty-five  years  of  age  and  just 


248  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

starting  out  in  business  for  himself.  He  buys  five  or  six 
good  cigars  each  day  and  they  cost  him  fifty  cents.  This 
amount  regularly  placed  at  seven  per  cent  compound  in- 
terest for  thirty  years  would  make  his  tobacco  bill  repre- 
sent over  $17,000.  A  man  spends  a  dollar  a  day  for 
tobacco.  How  much  would  his  tobacco  bill  represent 
in  only  ten  years,  at  seven  per  cent  compound  interest  ? 
over  $5,000.  In  twenty  years  ?  over  $16,000. 

We  have  a  very  interesting  letter  on  this  subject,  from 
Luther  Prescott  Hubbard  of  New  York.  Mr.  Hubbard 
has  been  Secretary  of  the  New  England  Society  for 
nearly  forty  years,  and  for  nearly  sixty  years  has  been  the 
financial  agent  of  the  American  Seamen's  Friend  Society. 
His  connection  with  literary  and  financial  enterprises 
entitles  his  statements  to  great  weight.  Mr.  Hubbard 
began  to  chew  tobacco  at  the  age  of  twelve,  and  a  few 
years  later  commenced  smoking.  He  says  his  tobacco 
cost  him,  on  the  average,  thirty-seven  and  a  half  cents 
each  day.  We  will  let  him  tell  the  rest  in  his  own 
language  which  he  kindly  allows  us  to  use  :  — 

i(  I  now  deposited  the  money  I  had  been  so  long  squan- 
dering for  tobacco  in  the  Seamen's  Bank  for  Savings.  I  will 
tell  the  boys  what  I  did  with  it,  that  they  may  see  how  un- 
wise and  inexpedient  it  is  to  commence  the  expensive,  de- 
moralizing habit  of  smoking  or  chewing  tobacco. 

"  We  had  long  lived  in  the  city,  but  the  annual  visits  of 
the  children  to  their  grandfather's  made  them  long  for 
a  home  among  the  green  fields.  I  found  a  very  pleasant 
place  for  sale.  There  were  over  two  acres  of  land,  with 
abundant  shade  and  fruit  trees,  a  good  garden,  a  fine  view 
of  Long  Island  Sound,  —  near  the  academy,  churches  and 
schools,  and  a  convenient  distance  from  New  York.  The 


WHAT  TOBACCO  COSTS.  249 

cigar  money  was  drawn  upon  to  purchase  the  place,  and  it 
is  mine. 

"  My  smoking  was  moderate  compared  with  that  of  many, 
costing  me  only  thirty-seven  and  a  half  cents  a  day,  equal 
to  $136.50  per  annum,  which,  at  seven  per  cent  interest  for 
fifty-nine  years,  amounts  to  the  small  fortune  of  $103,626.32. 
This  has  afforded  means  for  the  education  of  my  children, 
with  an  appropriate  allowance  for  benevolent  objects. 

"  Great  as  this  saving  has  been,  it  is  not  to  be  compared 
with  improved  health,  a  clear  head  and  steady  hand,  at  the 
age  of  over  eighty-three  years,  and  entire  freedom  from  de- 
sire for  tobacco  in  any  form." 

There  are  other  practical  questions  that  should  make 
every  intelligent  schoolboy  appreciate  the  money  part 
of  this  evil.  If  a  boy  saves  fifteen  cents  each  day  while 
going  through  his  four  years'  course  in  the  high  school, 
how  much  money  will  he  have  ?  Suppose  this  money 
had  been  invested  in  books,  and  suppose  that  he 'had 
purchased  twenty-five  volumes  of  the  most  recent  works 
at  an  average  price  of  two  dollars  each,  and  fifty  vol- 
umes at  one  dollar  each  ;  in  addition  to  these  how  many 
volumes  of  the  standard  works  of  such  writers  as  Scott 
and  Dickens,  Gibbon  and  Macaulay  could  he  purchase 
at  thirty-five  cents  each  ?  "A  good  sized  library,"  you 
will  say,  when  you  figure  the  result.  Too  choice  a 
collection  to  be  burned  up  at  the  rate  of  fifteen  cents  a 
day. 

Only  one  verdict  can  be  given  on  this  subject.  It  is 
that,  after  the  most  careful  examination  of  the  whole 
tobacco  question,  not  a  single  fact  can  be  brought  for- 
ward in  its  favor. 


250  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

OPIUM.  —  CHLORAL. 

The  Opium  Habit.  In  this  country  the  opium  habit  is 
usually  formed  as  a  result  of  taking  the  drug  for  the  re- 
lief of  pain.  If  the  pain  returns,  another  dose  is  taken. 
Sometimes  the  disease  is  of  such  a  character  that  the 
pain  continues  for  many  weeks,  necessitating  the  con- 
tinued use  of  the  opium.  After  a  time,  however,  the 
original  disease  may  entirely  disappear,  yet.  the  sufferer 
finds  he  must  continue  the  opium,  or  endure  great  agony 
of  body  and  mind.  Knowing  how  easily  the  opium  habit  is 
contracted,  the  careful  physician  does  not  prescribe  it  for 
those  conditions  where  its  use  is  likely  to  be  necessary 
for  some  weeks.  He  substitutes  less  powerful  narcotics, 
and  allows  his  patients  to  suffer  some  pain,  rather  than 
run  the  fearful  risk  of  producing  such  a  terrible  habit. 

Effects  of  Opium.  Opium  is  a  powerful  drug.  Even  a 
single  dose  prescribed  by  a  physician  for  the  relief  of 
some  severe  and  sudden  pain  is  often  followed  by  unde- 
sirable effects.  But  when  repeatedly  taken  for  a  long 
time,  the  body  becomes  thin,  and  the  skin  grows  sallow 
and  parchment-like.  The  opium  eater  suffers  from  loss 
of  appetite  and  improper  action  of  all  the  organs  of  the 
body.  There  is  a  marked  lowering  of  the  will-power, 
and  loss  of  memory.  The  person  will  not  hesitate  to 
deceive  and  lie  about  the  habit.  He  loses  all  sense  of 
truth,  and  appears  to  forget  there  is  any  difference  be- 


OPIUM.  —  CHLORAL.  251 

tween  right  and  wrong.  When  unable  to  obtain  the 
drug,  the  victim  suffers  the  most  excruciating  physical 
and  mental  torments. 

Preparation  of  Opium,  or  Patent  Medicines.  It  is  a  well- 
known  fact  that  nearly  all  physicians  are  opposed  to 
so-called  patent  medicines.  The  chief  reason  for  this 
is  that,  as  they  are  ignorant  of  the  composition  of  the 
medicine  they  are  unable  to  pass  judgment  upon  its 
merits  and  demerits.  When  a  person  is  ill  the  physi- 
cian prescribes  those  drugs  which  will  have  certain 
desired  effects  in  that  particular  case.  It  may  be  an 
acute  cold,  and  the  very  next  patient  he  visits  may  also 
be  suffering  from  the  same  affection  ;  yet  entirely  dif- 
ferent drugs  may  be  prescribed  in  the  second  case.  But 
a  patent  medicine  makes  it  necessary  that  persons  of 
different  constitutions,  living  in  various  climates,  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year,  and  in  varying  degrees  of  health, 
or  in  a  word,  that  all  classes  and  conditions  of  people 
everywhere  must  take  the  one  unvarying  mixture.  No 
one  man  can  intelligently  prescribe  a  single  mixture 
which  will  be  applicable  to  thousands  of  cases  ;  it  is  as 
impossible  as  it  is  unscientific. 

A  large  number  of  the  popular  u  soothing  syrups  "  of 
the  present  day  contain  opium.  These  syrups  are  freely 
given  to  children  to  produce  sleep,  or  to  correct  some  dis- 
turbance of  the  digestive  organs.  They  are  directly  re- 
sponsible for  many  deaths.  Nothing  of  the  kind  should 
ever  be  given.  Let  all  such  cases  be  referred  to  a  phy- 
sician. Is  it  not  more  probable  that  your  own  local  physi- 
cian should  know  better  what  is  needed  in  case  you  are 
ill  than  a  man,  uneducated  in  medicine,  living  thousands 
of  miles  away  ?  The  "  tonics,"  "  bitters  "  and  "  soothing 


252  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

syrups  "  of  the  market  are  too  likely  to  contain  either 
alcohol  or  opium  to  make  them  safe  remedies. 

Chloral.  A  few  years  ago  this  drug  was  extensively 
prescribed  by  medical  men  because  it  was  capable  of 
producing  sleep,  relieving  pain,  and  appeared  to  be 
free  from  danger.  Of  late  it  is  not  used  so  exten- 
sively, yet  there  is  danger  that  it  may  be  taken  re- 
peatedly as  a  substitute  for  opium.  The  habit  is  easily 
acquired  and  as  difficult  to  break  as  that  of  taking 
opium. 

Cocaine.  Chloroform.  When  a  solution  of  cocaine  is 
applied  to  any  absorbing  surface  it  produces  local  in- 
sensibility of  the  part.  When  chloroform  is  inhaled  the 
whole  body  becomes  insensible.  The  fornler  is  used  as 
a  local,  and  the  latter  as  a  general,  anaesthetic.  They 
are  powerful  and  dangerous  drugs,  a  small  amount  of 
either  being  sufficient  to  cause  death. 

Tea.  Coffee.  The  active,  growing  body  finds  in  these 
substances  nothing  which  it  needs.  Tea  and  coffee  are 
especially  bad  for  those  who  have  nervous  temperaments, 
and  those  who  lead  indolent  lives.  They  interfere  with 
digestion,  and  often  produce  biliousness  and  wakef ulness. 
The  student  can  accomplish  more  and  better  work  with- 
out these  drinks  than  with  them. 

Cocoa  and  Chocolate.  Cocoa  is  made  by  grinding  cocoa- 
beans  to  a  fine  powder.  These  beans  are  the  fruit  or  seeds 
of  the  cocoa-plant,  or  chocolate-tree.  Chocolate  is  made 
by  adding  sugar,  spices,  and  some  flavoring  substance  to 
the  powdered  cocoa.  Although  not  so  injurious  as  either 
tea  or  coffee,  yet  when  the  cocoa  is  rich  in  oil  it  is  not 
easily  digested. 


THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  253 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

THE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  NERVOUS 
SYSTEM. 

Two  Systems.  The  nervous  system  of  man  and  all 
vertebrate  animals  may  be  divided  into  two  secondary 
systems ;  each  having  its  own  particular  set  of  nerves 
and  nerve  centers.  These  are  called  the  cerebro-spinal 
system,  and  the  sympathetic,  or  ganglionic,  system. 

The  Cerebro-Spinal  System.  The  cerebro-spinal  system 
Js  composed  of  the  brain,  the  spinal  cord,  and  the  nerves 
which  originate  from  them.  The  brain  and  the  spinal 
cord  are  the  great  nerve  centers  of  the  body.  They  are 
connected  with  the  nerves  of  the  special  senses,  and 
with  the  nerves  of  common  sensation ;  they  convey  to 
the  mind  the  sensations  of  taste,  touch,  sight,  smell,  and 
hearing,  as  well  as  the  sensations  of  pain,  hunger,  thirst, 
etc.  The  mind,  in  turn,  is  capable  of  expressing  itself 
through  them.  Through  the  cerebro-spinal  system  the 
commands  of  the  mind  are  conveyed  to  various  parts 
of  the  body ;  thus,  we  "  will "  to  move  a  muscle ;  in- 
stantly a  force  is  sent  along  the  nerves  of  this  system 
to  the  proper  muscle,  and  it  promptly  obeys. 

The  Sympathetic  System.  The  sympathetic,  or  gan- 
glionic, system  consists  of  a  number  of  ganglia  and  nerve 
fibers.  The  ganglia  are  collections  of  nerve  cells.  They 
may  be  very  small,  composed  of  only  a  few  cells,  and 


254 


THE  ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 


visible  only  with  the  microscope ;  or  there  may  be  such 
a  collection  of  nerve  cells  that  the  ganglia  have  consid- 
erable size.  The  sympathetic 
system  consists  of  two  rows  of 
these  ganglia,  one  row  on  either 
side  of  the  spinal  column.  It 
consist  also  of  nerves  which  pro- 
ceed from  the  ganglia  to  the 
organs  in  the  thoracic,  the  ab- 
dominal, and  the  pelvic  cavities. 
The  sympathetic  nerves  do  not 
go  to  the  skin,  neither  are  they 
connected  with  the  special 
senses,  nor  are  they  under  the 
control  of  the  will.  This  system 
presides  over  the  involuntary 
processes  of  the  body ;  as  the 
circulation,  the  digestion,  the 
respiration,  the  absorption,  the 
nutrition,  and  the  involuntary 
muscles.  It  also  controls  the 
secretions  of  glands,  and  has 
much  to  do  with  the  amount  of 
blood  distributed  to  the  various 
organs  and  tissues. 

The  ganglia  are  connected 
with  each  other  by  small  nerve 
fibers,  while  other  minute  fibers 
connect  the  ganglia  with  the 
cerebro-spinal  system.  Thus  one  organ  is  made  to  act 
in  u  sympathy  "  with  another,  so  that  if  one  part  suffers 
in  any  way  another  suffers  with  it. 


FIG.  89.  Diagram  of  the 
cerebro-spinal  system  :  c,  cer- 
ebrum ;  cl,  cerebellum ;  s, 
spinal  column  ;  N,  nerves  for 
the  upper  and  lower  limbs  ; 
n,  nerves  going  to  the  mus- 
cles and  the  skin. 


THE   NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 


255 


Nerve  Tissue.  There  are  two  kinds  of  nerve  tissue ; 
one  is  composed  of  nerve  fibers,  and  the  other  of  nerve 
cells.  The  presence  of  numbers  of  the  nerve  cells  gives 
a  gray  color  to  the  tissue,  while  the  nerve  fibers  appear 
white.  Hence  an  accumulation  of  nerve  cells  is  called 
the  gray  substance,  and  a  collection  of  nerve  fibers  is 
called  the  white  substance.  The  nerve  cells  represent 
the  centers  of  activity  from  which  the  orders  are  issued. 
The  nerve  fibers  are  simply  the  conductors,  conveying 
the  messages  from  place  to  place.  The  gray  substance 
therefore,  represents  the  seat,  or  origin,  of  the  mysteri- 
ous forces  of  the  nervous  system ;  while  the  white 
substance  represents  only  so  many  fibers  for  the  trans- 
mission of  the  forces. 


FIG.  90.    Various  forms  of  nerve  cells,  highly  magnified. 

The  Nerve  Cells.  A  collection  of  nerve  cells  always 
makes  a  nerve  center.  The  greatest  collection  of  cells 
is  found  in  the  gray  matter  of  the  brain,  the  next  in  the 
spinal  cord,  and  the  next  in  the  ganglia  of  the  sympa- 


256  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 

thetic  system.  Nerve  cells  generate  nerve  force.  They 
also  receive  it  from  other  cells  and  give  it  out  again. 
They  are  therefore  generators  and  transmitters  of  nerve 
force. 

The  cells  vary  exceedingly  in  size  and  shape.  Some 
are  of  a  circular  form,  as  at  the  upper  left  corner  of 
Fig.  90.  Others  have  a  long  process  extending  from 
them,  as  shown  in  the  cell  to  the  right  of  the  last.  This 
one  process  represents  the  beginning  of  a  nerve  fiber, 
so  that  nerve  force  originating  in  the  cell  can  be  con- 
veyed from  it  through  this  fiber  to  some  distant  organ 
or  tissue.  Other  cells  have  many  processes,  one  of 
which  conveys  nerve  force  to  the  distant  parts. 

The  Nerve  Fibers.  The  nerve  fibers  convey  the  nerve 
force  from  one  part  of  the  body  to  another.  If  an  im- 
pression is  made  on  the  ends  of  some  of  the  fibers  they 
will  convey  it  to  the  nerve  cells  at  their  origin  :  thus  if 
the  skin  be  touched,  an  impression  is  made  on  the  ends 
of  nerve  fibers  which  is  instantly  conveyed  to  the  spinal 
cord,  and  then  to  the  brain,  where  a  sensation  is  pro- 
duced corresponding  to  that  on  the  skin.  No  change 
occurs  in  the  nerve  fiber  during  the  passage  of  this 
nerve  force,  so  far  as  we  know,  any  more  than  a  change 
is  produced  in  a  wire  by  sending  over  it  a  telegraphic 
message.  We  know  that  if  the  wire  be  cut  the  mes- 
sage will  be  interrupted ;  so  if  a  nerve  fiber  be  cut  in 
any  part  of  its  course  all  communication  is  at  once  shut 
off. 

Two  Kinds  of  Nerve  Fibers.  The  nerve  fibers  of  the 
cerebro-spinal  system  are  peculiar  in  this  respect ;  they 
can  convey  a  message  only  in  one  direction.  A  mes- 
sage may  be  sent  in  either  direction  over  a  telephone 


THE   NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  257 

or  over  a  telegraph  wire  ;  two  wires  are  not  necessary  ; 
but  with  the  nerve  fibers,  two  complete  sets  are  re- 
quired. One  set  conveys  sensation  from  the  outer  parts 
toward  the  nerve  centers  ;  while  the  other  set  conveys 
impressions  from  the  nerve  centers  oirtward  to  the 
muscles.  The  first  set  is  composed  of  nerve  fibers 
called  sensory  fibers,  because  they  convey  sensations  to 
the  spinal  cord  and  brain :  the  other  set  consists  of 
fibers  called  motory  fibers,  because  they  convey  the 
stimulus  of  motion  from  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  to 
the  muscles.  So  far  as  is  known  there  is  no  difference 
in  the  structure  of  these  fibers,  and  as  a  rule  they  are 
side  by  side  throughout  the  body. 

A  nerve,  as  seen  in  the  body,  and  as  mentioned  in  the 
books,  consists  of  a  large  number  of  these  nerve  fibers 
held  together  by  a  delicate  connective  tissue.  Each 
nerve  fiber  extends  the  whole  length  of  the  nerve,  from 
its  beginning  in  the  brain  or  spinal  cord  to  its 
termination. 

The  Brain.  The  brain  is  well  protected  in  the  cranial 
cavity.  It  is  surrounded  by  three  distinct  membranes, 
of  which  the  middle  one  is  capable  of  secreting  a  fluid. 
The  membranes  protect  the  brain  from  friction  against 
the  bony  walls,  while  the  watery  secretion  gives  it  some 
freedom  of  motion.  The  brain  is  well  supplied  with 
blood  vessels,  —  large  arteries  entering  the  base  of  the 
skull  with  the  spinal  cord. 

The  weight  of  the  brain  depends  partly  upon  the  size 
of  the  individual,  and  partly  upon  his  intellectual  capa- 
city. The  average  weight  of  the  brain  of  an  adult  male 
is  a  trifle  over  three  pounds,  49 J  or  49|  ounces.  The 
brain  of  Cuvier,  the  naturalist,  weighed  over  64  ounces, 

17 


258  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

and  the  brain  of  Daniel  Webster  weighed  63J  ounces. 
The  brains  of  idiots  are  very  light,  weighing  from  27 
ounces  to  as  low  as  8  ounces. 


FIG.  91.    Side  view  of  the  whole  human  brain:  (1)  cerebrum  ;  (2)  cere- 
bellum ;  (3)  medulla. 

While  it  is  true  that  many  noted  men  had  large  brains, 
it  is  also  true  that  some  equally  as  noted  had  small 
brains.  Yet  it  can  be  safely  asserted  that,  as  a  general 
rule,  the  larger  the  brain  the  greater  the  capacity  for 
intellectual  power ;  but  to  this  statement  there  are  some 
striking  exceptions.  It  appears  that  there  is  something 
besides  quantity  necessary  for  the  highest  mental  capa- 
bilities. This  may  be  called  quality,  or.  some  peculiarity 
of  the  brain  material  whereby  it  renders  its  possessor 
capable  of  great  intellectual  attainment. 

The  brain  is  divided  into  the  cerebrum,  the  cerebel- 
lum, and  the  medulla  oblongata. 

The  Cerebrum.     The  cerebrum  is  the  brain  proper.     It 


THE   NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 


259 


is  the  part  above  the  ears,  and  is  familiarly  known  as 
the  great  brain.  It  is  believed  that  the  cerebrum  is  the 
organ  of  the  mind ;  that  it  is  here  we  think,  know,  and 
reason.  The  cerebrum  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  a 


FIG.  92.    The  human  brain,  viewed  from  above  :  only  the  cerebrum  ia 
seen,  with  its  deep  fissure  nearly  dividing  it. 

natural  fissure  which  passes  from  the  front  backward. 
At  the  bottom  of  the  fissure  the  two  parts  are  united  Dy 
a  band  of  nervous  tissue,  as  shown  at  3  in  Fig.  93. 
From  this  it  would  at  first  appear  that  we  have  two 


260 


THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 


brains  corresponding  to  the  right  and  left  sides  of  the 
body ;  but  doubtless  the  band  of  union  between  them 
not  only  connects  the  structure  of  the  two  but  also  in 
some  way  unites  their  functions.  Figs.  91,  92,  and  93 
show  that  the  surface  of  the  brain  is  not  smooth  in 


FIG.  93.  One  half  of  the  brain, —the  inner  surface:  (1)  the  cere- 
brum ;  (2)  the  cerebellum  ;  (3)  the  band  of  tissue  that  unites  the  two 
sides  of  the  brain  ;  (4)  the  medulla  ;  (5)  the  spinal  cord. 

man,  but  is  thrown  into  a  number  of  ridges  or  convo- 
lutions. The  number  of  convolutions  and  the  depth  to 
which  they  reach  vary  in  the  different  animals.  In  some, 
the  surface  is  perfectly  smooth,  as  in  the  pigeon  and  frog ; 
in  others,  the  convolutions  are  shallow  and  few  in  num- 
ber ;  but  in  man,  they  are  many  and  very  deep.  As  a  rule, 


THE   NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 


261 


the  more  intelligent  the  animal  so  much  the  more  numer- 
ous  and  so  much  the  deeper  will  be  the  convolutions  of 
the  cerebrum.  The  reason 
for  this  is  readily  under- 
stood when  the  structure 
of  the  brain  is  made  clear. 
Gray  and  White  Matter  of 
the  Cerebrum.  The  gray 
matter  is  on  the  outside  of 
the  brain :  the  white  mat- 
ter is  within,  forming  the 
center  of  the  brain.  The 
white  matter  is  raised  in 
slight  folds  on  its  surface 
to  form  the  center  of  the 
convolutions  ;  but  the  bulk 
of  the  convolutions  is 
formed  by  the  gray  matter.  It  has  been  stated  that 
the  gray  matter  consists  principally  of  nerve  cells,  and 
that  these  cells  are  the  active  agents  in  originating, 


FIG.  94.  (1)  the  brain  of  a  pigeon  ; 
(2)  the  brain  of  a  frog, —  both  viewed 
from  above.  There  are  no  convolu- 
tions on  the  cerebrum,  H. 


FIG.  95.     A  diagram  illustrating  that  the  convolutions  of  the  brair< 
give  more  surface  for  the  gray  matter. 

receiving,  and  sending  forth  orders.  The  cells  com- 
mand and  the  fibers  obey;  the  cells  originate,  and  the 
fibers  carry  the  messages.  If  the  cells  are  specially  con- 
cerned in  originating  and  commanding,  it  is  evident  that 
a  large  amount  of  the  gray  matter  is  most  desirable. 


262  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 


The  convolutions  provide  for  this  extra  amount  of  gray 
matter.  This  is  made  clear  by  the  accompanying  dia- 
gram. Suppose  the  surface  of  the  brain  be  smooth,  and 
Covered  with  a  layer  of  gray  matter,  then  the  line  from 
A  to  B  wtDuld  represent  the  extent  of  the  surface.  But 
suppose  the  layer  of  gray  matter  be  thrown  into  folds, 
or  convolutions,  then  the  amount  of  surface  would  be 
represented  by  the  line  1  to  2.  It  is  at  once  clear  that 
the  line  1  2  is  much  longer  than  the  line  A  B.  In 
other  words,  the  convolutions  greatly  increase  the 
amount  of  gray  matter.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  the 
deeper  the  convolutions  and  the  greater  their  number, 
so  much  the  more  will  the  gray  matter  be  in  excess. 
This  anatomical  fact  probably  explains,  why  some 
smaller  .brains  are  more  intellectual  than  others  which 
exceed  them  in  size.  In  the  former  cases  it  is  probable 
that  the  convolutions  are  deeper  and  more  numerous 
than  they  are  in  the  latter ;  thus  actually  giving  more 
gray  matter  in  the  smaller  brain. 

The  'Cerebellum.  This  part  of  the  brain  is  situated  be- 
neath the  back  part  of  the  cerebrum,  and  is  often  called 
the  lesser  brain.  It  consists  of  gray  and  white  matter 
arranged  in  the  form  of  parallel  ridges  and  furrows  run- 
ning over  its  surface,  as  represented  in  Fig.  91. 

The  Medulla  Oblongata.  The  medulla,  as  it  is  gen- 
erally called,  is  situated  at  the  upper  end  of  the  spinal 
cord,  between  the  cord  and  the  brain.  It  represents  an 
enlargement  of  the  upper  part  of  the  spinal  cord,  as  illus- 
trated at  4,  Fig.  93.  It  is  well  protected  in  the  thick 
bones  at  the  base  of  the  skull.  The  functions  of  the 
medulla  are  so  necessary  to  life  that  it  must  be  regarded 
as  the  most  vital  portion  of  the  entire  body,  yet  it  is 
only  about  one  and  one  fourth  inches  in  length. 


THE   NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 


263 


The  Spinal  Cord,  The  spinal  cord,  as  illustrated  in 
Fig.  89,  represents  the  elongated  part  of  the  cerebro- 
spinal  system.  It  is  about  eighteen  inches  in  length, 
one  half  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness, and  is  nearly  circular 
in  shape.  It  is  surrounded 
by  three  membranes  which 
are  continuations  of  those 
surrounding  the  brain,  and 
is  well  protected  in  the  spi- 
nal canal  of  the  vertebral 
column.  It  begins  at  the 
medulla,  and  terminates  at 
the  lower  end  of  the  spinal 
column  in  a  number  of  fine 
threads,  as  illustrated  in 
Fig.  89.  It  is,  like  the 
brain,  divided  into  halves 
by  deep  fissures.  One  fis- 
sure extends  down  the  an- 
terior, and  the  other  down 
the  posterior  median  lines, 
nearly  dividing  the  cord 
into  two  parts.  Fig.  96  Ff  96;  Cross  sections  of  the 

r  '  spinal  cords  of  different  animals, 

illustrates     these     fiSSUreS  ;      represented  as   twice  the   natural 
One,    the    anterior,    showing      size:  (1)  horse;    (2)  ox;    (3)  man; 

more   clearly  than  the     (4)  hog;  (5)  squirrel. 
other.    An  open  central  canal  is  also  seen.     From  the 
sides  of  the  spinal  cord  there  are  given  off  thirty-one 
nerves,  known  as  the  spinal  nerves. 

White  and  Gray  Matter  of  the  Spinal  Cord.     The  gray 
matter  of  the  cord  is  in  the  center.     It  is  so  arranged 


264 


THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 


that  when  the  cord  is  cut  transversely  it  slightly  re- 
sembles the  letter  H.  The  darkly  shaded  portions  in 
Fig.  96  illustrate  this  fact,  and  it  is  also  shown  in  Fig. 


FIG.  97.     A  cross  section  of  the  spinal  cord,  magnified. 

97.  In  the  upper,  or  anterior  points  of  the  letter  H,  in 
Fig  97,  are  seen  some  irregular-shaped,  darkly  shaded 
bodies ;  these  are  the  large  nerve  cells,  a  representation 
of  which  is  given  in  Fig.  90. 

Outside  the  central  gray  matter  is  the  white  matter, 
which  is  composed  of  fibers.  The  fibers  extend  up  and 
down  the  cord,  so  that  a  transverse  section  of  the  cord, 
as  seen  in  Fig.  97,  shows  the  fibers  to  be  circular  and 
white,  with  a  dot  or  dark  spot  in  the  center.  This  dark 
spot  represents  a  cross  section  of  that  part  of  a  nerve 
fiber  which  transmits  the  nerve  force ;  the  white  sub- 
stance around  it  is  for  insulation  and  protection.  These 
fibers  finally  enter  the  brain  and  are  distributed  to  all 
parts  of  it,  being  at  last  connected  with  the  nerve  cells. 

The  Spinal  Nerves.  Each  one  of  the  spinal  nerves  orig- 
inates in  the  spinal  cord  by  two  roots.  One  root,  the  an- 


THE  NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  265 

terior,  originates  from  the  anterior  part  of  the  gray 
matter,  as  illustrated  at  1,  Fig.  98.  The  other  origi- 
nates from  the  posterior  part,  as  shown  at  2.  Both  these 
roots  unite  to  form  one  nerve,  at  3.  On  the  posterior 


Fia.  98.  A  diagram  illustrating  the  origin  of  the  spinal  nerves  from 
the  spinal  cord-  (3)  is  a  spinal  nerve;  (1)  and  (2)  are  the  roots,  which 
originate  from  the  gray  matter  of  the  cord ;  G,  a  collection  of  nerve  cells ; 
(1)  the  motory  root,  (2)  the  sensory  root. 

root  is  a  ganglion,  G,  or  a  collection  of  nerve  cells. 
The  nerve  fibers,  at  3,  continue  together  as  a  spinal 
nerve  until  they  reach  the  distant  parts  of  the  body, 
when  they  separate  again.  Those  fibers  which  origi= 
nated  from  the  anterior  part,  known  as  motory  fibers, 
terminate  in  muscles ;  while  those  from  the  posterior 
part,  known  as  sensory  fibers,  terminate  in  the  siun. 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  Name  the  two  nervous  systems. 

2.  What  composes  the  cerebro-spinal  system? 

3.  What  composes  the  sympathetic  system  ?     What  are  gan< 


266  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

4.  What  does  the  sympathetic  system  preside  over  and  control? 

5.  Give  the  two  kinds  of  nerve  tissue. 

6.  How  do  they  differ  in  color  ? 

7.  What  do  the  nerve  cells  represent  ?     The  nerve  fibers  ? 

8.  What  makes  a  nerve  center  ? 

9.  What  do  nerve  cells  generate,  receive,  and  impart? 

10.  How  many  varieties  of  nerve  fibers  ? 

11.  Describe  the  function  of  the  sensory  fibers.      The   motor}/ 
fibers. 

12.  What  is  a  nerve? 

13.  How  many  membranes  surround  the  brain. 

14.  Of  what  use  are  they? 

15.  Give  the  average  weight  of  the  brain  of  an  adult. 

16.  Does  a  small  brain  necessarily  indicate  low  intelligence? 

1 7.  Give  a  general  rule  about  this.     Any  exceptions  ? 

18.  Into  how  many  parts  is  the  brain  divided? 

19.  What  is  the  name  of  the  brain  proper? 

20.  What  is  the  function  of  the  cerebrum  ? 

21.  How  is  the  cerebrum  divided?     Is  it  completely  divided? 

22.  Is  the  surface  of  the  human  brain  smooth? 

23.  Do  the  convolutions  vary  in  depth? 

24.  Do  all  animals  have  these  convolutions  ?    Name  some  that  do 
not. 

25. '  Is  the  gray  or  white  matter  on  the  surface  of  the  brain? 

26.  What  composes  the  bulk  of  the  convolutions  ? 

27.  How  do  the  convolutions  affect  the  amount  of  gray  matter? 

28.  Where  is  the  cerebellum ?     Of  what  does  it  consist? 

29.  Where  is  the  medulla  ?     How  large  is  it  ? 

30.  Give  a  general  description  of  the  spinal  cord. 

31.  Where  is  its  gray  matter?     Its  arrangement  resembles  what  i 

32.  How  do  the  spinal  nerves  originate? 

33.  Which  are  the  motory  fibers ?     Which  the  sensory? 


THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  267 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE    NERVOUS 
SYSTEM. 

The  Nerve  Current.  The  peculiar  force  carried  by  the 
nerves  from  one  part  of  the  body  to  another  is  called 
the  nerve  current,  or  nerve  force ;  it  travels  along  the 
nerve  at  the  rate  of  over  one  hundred  feet  a  second.  It 
is  not  known  what  this  force  is,  although  we  do  know 
what  conditions  favor  it,  and  what  check  it.  If  the 
end  of  the  finger  be  touched,  almost  instantly  the  sen- 
sation reaches  the  brain  and  is  made  known  to  the  mind. 
But  the  nature  of  the  force  which  conveys  this  sensa- 
tion along  the  nerves  from  the  finger  to  the  spinal  cord, 
and  then  up  the  cord  to  the  brain,  is,  as  we  have  said, 
entirely  unknown. 

The  nerve  current  is  set  in  operation  by  a  stimulus. 
Suppose  there  is  a  desire  to  move  the  hand :  in  this  case 
the  stimulus  is  an  act  of  the  will,  which  excites  the  nerve 
current,  so  that  it  almost  instantly  passes  down  the  nerve 
fibers  to  the  muscles  of  the  arm.  When  the  nerve  cur- 
rent reaches  a  muscle,  the  current  itself  acts  as  a  stimu- 
lus, rousing  the  muscle  to  action.  If  we  pinch  the  skin 
the  stimulus  is  a  mechanical  one ;  the  sensation  is  car> 
ried  to  the  nerve  centers,  over  the  sensory  fibers.  The 
pupil  of  the  eye  becomes  smaller  when  a  bright  light 
is  brought  near  the  face :  in  this  case,  light  is  the  stiimi- 


268  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

lus  which  at  last  causes  the  muscle  of  the  iris  to  con- 
tract. A  sharp  scream  will  cause  a  person  standing 
near  to  jump;  here  fright  is  the  stimulus.  Thus  we 
conclude  that  nerve  currents,  mechanical  agents,  light, 
and  the  emotions,  may  each  act  as  a  stimulus. 

Function  of  the  Cerebrum.  The  cerebrum  is  the  seat 
of  the  intelligence.  It  is  here  that  we  think,  feel,  and 
will.  It  is  not  known  how  the  mind  is  connected  with 
the  brain.  It  is  impossible  to  explain  how  it  is  that  our 
intelligence  depends  upon  the  tissue  of  the  brain.  We 
simply  know  the  fact  that  in  some  way  the  existence  of 
our  mind  depends  upon  a  normal  brain.  This  has  been 
proved  in  many  ways.  An  injury  to  the  head,  resulting 
in  a  portion  of  the  skull  being  fractured  and  pressed 
upon  the  brain,  has  been  followed  by  loss  of  conscious- 
ness ;  and  the  person  has  remained  in  a  deep  sleep  until 
the  surgeon  has  raised  the  depressed  bone,  when  con- 
sciousness has  returned. 

Sickness  has  also  proven  it ;  an  inflammation  of  the 
membranes  of  the  brain,  affecting  its  surface,  causes  de- 
lirium and  otherwise  disturbs  the  mind.  Medicines 
which  affect  the  flow  of  blood  to  the  brain  also  inter- 
fere with  the  reasoning  faculties.  Persons  born  with 
extremely  small  brains  have  no  intelligence.  After  re- 
moving the  cerebrum  all  voluntary  acts  are  abolished. 
Thus  injuries,  disease,  drugs,  size,  and  experiments  all 
show  that  a  healthy  condition  of  the  cerebrum  is  ne- 
cessary for  the  existence  of  intelligence  and  the  power 
to  will  and  to  command. 

Two  Brains.  As  stated  in  the  preceding  chapter,  the 
cerebrum  is  nearly  divided  into  two  complete  parts. 
This  fact  has  led  some  physiologists  to  declare  that 


THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  269 

there  are  two  brains,  and  that  they  act  independently  of 
each  other.  It  is  nearer  the  truth,  probably,  to  say  that 
so  far  as  the  mind  is  concerned,  the  sides  of  the  cere- 
brum should  be  considered  as  one  whole  organ,  but  that 
each  side  controls  the  sensation  and  motion  of  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  body. 

Mind  and  Body.  In  some  mysterious  way,  these  two 
are  so  connected  that  what  affects  the  one  affects  the 
other  also.  Therefore  a  healthy  mind  and  a  diseased 
brain  cannot  go  together.  As  the  same  blood  nourishes 
the  brain  that  nourishes  the  other  parts  of  the  body,  so 
the  former  cannot  be  in  its  best  state  unless  the  latter 
be  in  a  healthy  condition.  From  this  it  follows  that  if 
we  would  attain  the  fullest  intellectual  development, 
attention  must  be  given  to  the  laws  of  health,  and  their 
teachings  strictly  obeyed. 

Function  of  the  Cerebellum.  Injuries  to  the  cerebellum 
do  not  necessarily  interfere  with  either  the  will  or  the  con- 
sciousness, but  with  the  movements  of  the  body.  From 
this  it  would  appear  that  the  cerebellum  is  especially 
concerned  in  maintaining  a  harmony  of  action  of  the  vol- 
untary muscles.  Without  the  controlling  power  of  the 
cerebellum,  the  muscles  would  act  as  irregularly  as  they 
do  in  one  who  is  intoxicated.  By  its  acfion  we  are  able 
to  keep  an  exact  position  ;  and  at  all  times  can  have  the 
muscles  act  in  harmony  and  with  regularity. 

Functions  of  the  Medulla.  This  part  of  the  nervous 
system  is  one  of  great  interest.  It  is  most  essential  to 
life,  and  it  controls  many  of  the  most  important  func- 
tions. In  the  medulla  are  many  "  centers,"  or  small 
collections  of  nerve  cells,  which  control  certain  func- 
tions. When  these  centers  are  stimulated  in  any  way. 


270  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

they  put  into  action  the  functions  they  control ;  as  for 
example,  there  is  a  "  sneezing  center."  If  some  irritant 
be  inhaled  into  the  nose  the  ends  of  the  nerve  fibers  are 
irritated,  and  an  impression  is  conveyed  to  the  sneezing 
center ;  from  this  center  goes  forth  a  nerve  current  to 
certain  muscles,  which  contract  and  cause  the  expulsive 
act  of  sneezing.  Besides  the  sneezing  center  there  are 
many  others,  among  which  are :  the  coughing  center ; 
the  center  for  the  secretion  of  the  saliva ;  the  vomiting 
center ;  the  swallowing  center ;  and  the  center  for  the 
closure  of  the  eyelids. 

One  of  the  most  important  centers  is  known  as  the 
respiratory  center.  It  is  a  fact  that  a  small  collection 
of  cells  in  the  medulla  controls  absolutely  all  the 
movements  of  respiration.  This  small  center  has 
greater  power  than  the  will  itself ;  for  we  may  "  will " 
not  to  breathe,  and  we  can  make  the  attempt  to  hold  the 
breath,  but  soon  we  can  do  so  no  longer.  Notwith- 
standing our  greatest  efforts,  we  again  begin  to  breathe ; 
for  the  center  in  the  medulla  is  stronger  than  the  will. 
We  may  be  capable  of  increasing  or  diminishing  the 
number  of  respirations  per  minute  for  a  short  time ; 
even  cease  breathing  for  a  brief  period ;  but  soon  the 
respiratory  center  exerts  its  power,  and  respiration  is 
continued  with  wonderful  regularity. 

Other  important  centers  affect  the  movements  of 
the  heart.  One  center  continuously  holds  the  heart  in 
check,  causing  it  to  beat  with  great  regularity.  An- 
other center  appears  to  have  an  opposite  effect  at  times, 
being  capable  of  accelerating  the  action  of  the  heart. 
-  No  less  important  is  the  vaso-motor  center.  This 
controls  the  nerves  which  go  to  all  the  arterial  system. 


THE   NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  271 

It  is  a  small  collection  of  cells,  yet  it  is  capable  of  caus- 
ing the  contraction,  or  relaxation,  of  the  walls  of  an}7  of 
the  arteries.  It  will  be  remembered  that  in  the  walls 
of  the  arteries  is  a  layer  of  involuntary  muscle,  arranged 
in  a  circular  manner  around  the  A^essels ;  if  the  muscle 
contracts,  the  vessel  will  be  narrowed  ;  while  if  it  re- 
laxes, the  vessel  will  be  enlarged.  The  vaso-motor 
center  presides  over  the  action  of  the  muscular  walls  of 
the  arteries :  the  normal  condition  of  this  center  is  one 
which  keeps  the  arterial  walls  in  a  moderate  state  of 
contraction  at  all  times.  The  center  is  said  to  keep  up 
the  "  tone  "  of  the  arteries,  whereby  their  walls  are  held 
firmly  in  hand.  When  the  function  of  this  center  is 
checked,  it  releases  its  hold  on  the  arterial  walls  and 
they  relax,  thus  enlarging  the  size  of  the  vessel.  If  the 
blood  vessels  are  thus  made  larger,  more  blood  will  flow 
through  them,  and  the  parts  will  be  a  deeper  red  in 
color.  This  is  usually  temporary,  but  it  may  become 
permanent. 

Blushing  is  a  temporary  checking  of  the  power  of  the. 
vaso-motor  nerves  of  the  face ;  they  cease  to  act,  thus 
allowing  the  muscles  in  the  smaller  arteries  of  the  skin 
to  relax ;  this  results  in  a  temporary  enlargement  of 
the  blooci  vessels,  so  that  more  blood  flows  to  the  part. 
The  vaso-motor  nerves  may  become  paralyzed,  so  that 
the  blood  vessels  are  permanently  enlarged ;  this  is  the 
condition  of  the  red  nose  of  the  confirmed  inebriate. 

The  vaso-motor  center  may  act  in  an  opposite  man- 
ner to  that  described,  —  it  may  act  with  more  than  nor- 
mal power.  The  smaller  arteries  then  have  their  mus- 
cular walls  contracted  with  more  vigor,  so  that  the 
amount  of  blood  in  a  part  may  be  greatly  reduced. 


272  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

Cold  stimulates  the  vaso-motor  center,  so  that  if  the 
hand  be  placed  in  cold  water  it  soon  becomes  pale  from 
loss  of  blood.  Fright  often  causes  the  face  to  become 
pale,  owing  to  the  vigorous  action  of  this  center. 

This  power  of  the  vaso-inotor  center  is  most  essential 
to  the  preservation  of  health,  and  even  of  life  itself. 
Let  us  illustrate  its  daily  action :  the  cold  weather  of 
winter  stimulates  the  center  so  that  it  acts  with  in- 
creased power;  this  contracts  the  arteries  of  the  skin, 
so  that  the  flow  of  blood  through  it  is  greatly  dimin- 
ished. Therefore  the  loss  of  animal  heat  is  diminished, 
as  we  have  already  learned.  But  during  the  summer 
the  vaso-motor  nerves  relax  their  hold  on  the  smaller 
bloodvessels  of  the  skin;  the  blood  flows  more  freely 
through  it,  and  the  loss  of  heat  is  thereby  increased. 

From  all  this  we  conclude  that  the  vaso-motor  center 
is  capable  of  controlling  the  supply  of  blood  to  any  part 
of  the  body.  By  increasing  its  normal  function  the 
arteries  of  any  part  are  made  smaller  and  the  supply 
of  blood  correspondingly  less ;  while  by  diminishing  its 
normal  work  the  arteries  are  made  larger  and  the  sup- 
ply of  blood  increased.  It  has  certainly  been  proven 
that  the  medulla  is  a  most  important,  as  well  as  most 
delicate  part  of  the  nervous  system. 

The  Spinal  Cord  and  Reflex  Action.  The  spinal  cord 
is  the  conducting  medium  between  the  nerve  fibers  of 
the  lower  part  of  the  body,  and  the  'brain. 

A  second  function  of  the  cord  is  a  reflex  one.  It  is 
a  great  reflex  center ;  its  action  in  this  respect  is  al- 
most continuous.  There  are  many  familiar  illustrations 
of  this  action  in  every-day  life ;  tickling  the  foot  of 
a  person  who  is  asleep  causes  the  foot  to  be  quickly 


THE   NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  273 

withdrawn  ;  this  is  purely  a  reflex  act.  The  impression 
produced  on  the  nerves  of  the  foot  is  conveyed  along 
the  sensory  fibers  to  the  spinal  cord,  and  from  the 
cord  it  is  "  reflected  "  outward  along  a  motory  nerve  to 
the  muscles  of  the  limb.  The  sensation  produced  by 
the  tickling  entered  the  cord  through  the  posterior  root 
of  a  spinal  nerve,  and  immediately  left  it  through  the 
anterior  root;  this  involved  no  interference  of  the  brain. 

To  make  a  reflex  act,  three  things  are  necessary  :  an 
unbroken  sensory  nerve,  for  connecting  the  point  touched 
and  the  nerve  centre  ;  a  healthy  nerve  centre ;  and  an 
unbroken  motory  nerve,  between  the  nerve  centre  and 
the  muscles  to  be  stimulated.  Reflex  action  is  partly, 
but  not  altogether,  under  the  control  of  the  will.  To 
illustrate  :  if  we  inhale  an  irritating  powder,  like  pepper, 
through  the  nose,  we  may  be  able  to  postpone  the  sneez- 
ing for  a  short  time,  but  finally  we  are  obliged  to  sneeze, 
and  no  power  of  the  will  can  prevent  it. 

Course  of  Nerve  Current  in  Reflex  Action.  A  glance  at 
Fig.  98  will  make  clear  the  course  of  the  nerve  current 
in  a  reflex  act.  At  the  right,  3,  is  one  of  the  spinal 
nerves.  This  large  nerve  consists  of  many  fibers  which 
proceed  together  until  they  reach  some  distant  part,  as 
the  arm.  Some  of  the  fibers  terminate  in  the  skin,  and 
others  in  the  muscles.  If  the  skin  on  the  arm  be  touched 
the  stimulus  will  be  conveyed  toward  the  spinal  cord  and 
will  finally  enter  it  through  the  sensory  root,  at  2.  The 
nerve  current  then  goes  directly  through  the  gray  mat- 
ter to  the  anterior  or  motory  root,  at  1 ;  it  then  passes 
down  the  motory  fibers,  which  are  alone  at  1,  but  which 
are  soon  side  by  side  with  the  sensory  fibers  in  the 
spinal  nerve,  at  3.  After  continuing  the  length  of  the 

18 


274  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF  HEALTH. 

motory  fibers  the  current  finally  stimulates  some  of 
the  muscles  of  the  arm  and  they  respond  by  a  vigor- 
ous contraction.  Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  sensory  and 
motory  fibers  are  separated  into  distinct  bundles  at 
their  beginning,  and  they  are  also  separated  at  their 
termination,  the  former  in  the  skin  and  the  latter  in 
the  muscles ;  but  they  were  together  in  one  bundle 
through  all  the  distance  between.  A  reference  to 
Fig.  99  may  aid  in  making  the  subject  more  clear. 
The  nerve  current  travels  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow- 
heads. 

Importance  of  Reflex  Action.  The  daily  work  of  the 
body  is  carried  on  largely  as  a  result  of  reflex  action. 

The  flow  of  saliva  produced 
by  mastication  is  a  result  of 
reflex  action ;  and  we  could  not 
check  the  flow  if  we  desired. 
The  flow  of  the  gastric  juice, 
from  the  stimulus  of  food  in 
FIG:  99.  A  diagram  illus-  the  stomach,  is  purely  a  re- 

trating  reflex  action  :  s,  the  skin,      gult  Qf   reflex    actjon<      ReSpi- 

M,  a  muscle.     If  the  skin,  s,  be 

touched  the  nerve  current  travels      ratl°n   1S   a   r°fleX    act,  due   to 

in  the  direction  of  the  arrows  certain  stimuli  applied  to  the 
until  it  stimulates  the  muscle,  M,  respiratory  center  in  the  me- 

to  contract  dulla>       The    nervous    system 

is  constantly  performing  a  vast  amount  of  labor  of  which 
we  are  unconscious,  and  which  we  are  unable  to  alter, 
except  possibly  to  a  limited  degree  in  a  few  instances. 

Acquired  Reflex  Action.  Many  acts  which  are  at  first 
voluntary,  and  which  are  performed  only  by  a  strong 
effort  of  the  will,  finally  become  so  natural  and  easy 
that  they  are  performed  unconsciously ;  these  may  be 


THE   NEIUOUS   SYSTEM.  275 

called  acquired  reflex  acts.  Walking  was  a  very  diffi^ 
cult  process  at  first,  and  could  only  be  accomplished 
with  considerable  effort.  The  number  of  muscles 
brought  into  play  in  running  and  jumping  is  very 
great;  yet  they  all  relax  and  contract  at  just  the 
proper  time,  without  the  least  aid  from  the  will.  When 
the  beginner  plays  the  piano,  he  not  only  looks  at  the 
music,  but  also  at  the  keys,  that  only  the  right  ones 
may  be  touched ;  but  after  a  time  the  sight  of  a  par- 
ticular note  calls  forth  such  a  movement  of  the  hand 
that  just  the  proper  key  is  touched ;  the  performer  looks 
at  the  music,  and  the  hands  take  care  of  themselves. 
The  first  trials  at  skating  are  not  highly  successful ;  all 
the  power  of  the  will  has  to  be  exercised  to  keep  the 
balance  and  to  move  in  the  desired  direction  ;  but  soon 
the  movements  become  easier  and  the  exercise  becomes 
a  pleasure  and  a  rest. 

Habit.  A  habit  is  an  action  acquired  by  frequent 
repetition.  It  is  a  law  in  physiology  that  each  time 
a  nerve  cell  acts  in  a  particular  way,  it  gains  a  power 
that  makes  the  second  act  more  easily  performed.  In 
this  way  a  habit  is  formed  :  it  may  be  the  habit  of  walk- 
ing, skating,  or  playing  the  piano ;  it  matters  not  what 
the  acts  are,  provided  the  nerve  centers  become  accus- 
tomed to  their  repetition.  At  first,  it  was  difficult  to 
say  the  alphabet  correctly,  but  now  that  we  are  in  the 
habit  of  saying  it,  we  can  repeat  it  correctly  more  easily 
than  incorrectly.  It  took  an  effort  of  the  will  at  first  to 
say  it  correctly,  while  now  it  requires  much  more  will 
power  to  say  it  incorrectly;  in  other  words,  it  takes  a 
direct  effort  of  the  will  to  break  the  habit  of  saying  it 
correctly. 


276  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

This  clearly  proves  two  things :  first,  by  the  frequent 
repetition  of  an  act  we  soon  become  quite  unconscious 
of  it ;  and  second,  it  requires  a  direct  effort  of  the  will 
to  break  the  habit.  F.vom  this  it  follows  that  the  nerve 
centers  will  have  a  strong  tendency  to  do  whatever  they 
have  been  in  the  habit  of  doing.  Thus  there  is  sound 
reasoning  in  the  statement  that  one  kind  act  makes  the 
way  easier  for  another  to  follow.  One  duty  performed 
makes  another  more  easy ;  each  pure  thought  invites 
another  of  its  kind.  Each  temptation  conquered 
makes  us  more  sure  of  future  victory.  In  youth,  before 
the  nerve  centers  have  formed  their  life  habits,  it  is 
comparatively  easy  for  us  to  lay  the  foundation  of 
future  usefulness.  Such,  at  least,  is  the  teaching  of 
physiology. 

Life  is  a  hard  battle  at  its  best,  and  if  we  would  make 
it  a  grand  success  we  need  all  the  help  we  can  get  from 
every  possible  source,  Physiology  teaches  us  that  by 
the  repetition  of  what  may  seem  trifling  deeds,  we  can, 
while  still  young,  form  the  habit  of  breaking  the  laws 
of  health  ;  it  teaches  us  what  the  result  of  such  actions 
will  be ;  and  it  also  teaches  us  that  no  person  can  avoid 
these  results  without  avoiding  their  causes.  On  the 
other  hand,  we  learn  from  this  stern  teacher  that  it  is 
easy,  while  yet  young,  to  form  the  habit  of  right  living, 
so  that  we  may  build  up  both  body  and  soul  for  future 
usefulness  and  happiness. 


THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  277 


CHAPTER   XXVII. 

THE   HYGIENE   OF   THE   NERVOUS 
SYSTEM. 

Necessity  of  a  Healthy  Nervous  System.  We  have 
learned  that  all  the  functions  of  the  body  are  dependent 
upon  the  activity  of  the  nerve  centers :  these  must  be 
in  the  best  condition,  or  the  parts  under  their  control 
will  suffer.  The  nervous  system  is  so  closely  related 
to  the  other  parts  of  the  body  that  an  injury  of  any 
kind  to  the  one  is  sure  to  affect  the  other. 

Heredity,  One  of  the  things  necessary  for  a  vigorous 
nervous  system  is  its  inheritance.  The  old  saying  that 
"  blood  will  tell "  is  as  true  to-day  as  when  it  was  first 
uttered.  We  not  only  inherit  the  forms  and  the  feat- 
ures of  our  parents,  but  also,  to  a  certain  degree,  their 
dispositions,  their  powers  of  endurance,  their  likes  and 
dislikes,  and  even  their  moral  characters.  The  laws  of 
heredity  are  very  strong,  and,  in  the  long  run,  they  are 
true.  A  child  has  a  wonderful,  almost  inestimable 
gift,  if  endowed  by  birth  with  a  sound  and  strong  nerv- 
ous system  free  from  physical  and  moral  ills.  Such  a 
child  has  a  start  in  the  world  far  in  advance  of  others 
less  highly  favored,  while  his  efforts  to  lead  an  upright 
life  are  much  more  easily  crowned  with  success.  The 
less  favored  child,  who  inherits  a  nervous  system 
shattered  and  weakened  by  the  vicious  habits  of  his 


278  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  P1EALTH. 

ancestors,  enters  life  at  a  disadvantage,  while  he  has  a 
constant  fight  with  himself  to  conquer  a  natural  ten- 
dency to  do  evil.  When  at  last  his  better  nature  rules, 
and  he  completely  masters  himself,  he  comes  off  a 
glorious  conqueror. 

A  Healthy  Body.  Even  with  a  vigorous  nervous  system 
and  a  strong  moral  nature  transmitted  to  us,  all  our 
bright  prospects  may  be  easily  blasted  by  neglecting  to 
obey  some  of  the  well-known  laws  of  health.  To  develop 
the  nervous  system  requires  proper  food,  pure  air,  and 
plenty  of  mental  and  physical  exercise.  Physical  pain 
is  not  conducive  to  the  best  brain  work ;  a  tired  body 
will  not  stimulate  the  brain  to  action  ;  hence  we  con- 
clude again  that  a  healthy  body  is  necessary  for  the  high- 
est and  best  development  of  the  whole  nervous  system. 

Exercise  of  the  Mind.  As  muscular  exercise  is  essen- 
tial to  the  full  development  of  the  muscles,  so  mental 
exercise  is  necessary  if  the  best  efforts  of  the  brain  are 
desired.  This  exercise  must  be  regular,  persistent,  and 
properly  suited  to  the  age  and  health  of  the  person.  It 
is  impossible  for  the  boy  to  jump  so  far  at  the  first 
trial  as  he  will  after  weeks  of  practice ;  neither  can  he 
perform  so  severe  mental  work  at  first  as  he  will  after 
months  of  constant  study. 

If  the  muscles  have  not  been  previously  trained,  one 
hard  effort  at  lifting  or  running  may  cause  severe  pain 
and  soreness  in  them.  So  an  extra  effort  of  the  mind 
for  one  unaccustomed  to  study  may  cause  headache  and 
even  severe  mental  disorders.  The  evils  of  over-study 
and  of  crowding  too  many  studies  into  each  school  year 
are  being  more  fully  understood  and  corrected,  while 
more  attention  is  being  given  to  a  better  understanding 


THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  279 

of  the  laws  of  health.  The  modern  teacher  knows  that 
a  pupil  with  a  healthy  body  is  much  more  likely  to  have 
a  vigorous  mind ;  and  that  the  proper  care  of  both 
should  go  hand  in  hand. 

Mental  labor  ought  not  to  cease  with  the  school  life ; 
the  school  is  to  discipline  and  train  the  mind  so  that 
the  powers  of  observation  and  reasoning  may  continue 
throughout  life  to  the  best  possible  advantage.  "  Work  " 
is  the  word  that  contains  the  secret  of  a  healthy  body 
arid  a  well-balanced  mind,  —  regular,  systematic,  persis- 
tent work,  both  for  the  body  and  the  mind.  Pleasures 
are  more  enjoyable,  and  amusements  are  more  profitable, 
if  they  be  but  the  short  vacations  in  our  daily  duties. 
A  life  of  idleness  and  pleasure-seeking  is  not  the  normal 
condition  of  any  human  being. 

Rest.  The  mind,  as  well  as  the  body,  would  soon  fail 
if  it  were  obliged  to  work  too  hard  or  too  long.  Rest 
is  absolutely  necessary  for  all  parts  of  the  body.  Many 
individuals  seem  to  think  that  rest  means  to  fold  the 
hands  and  remain  in  perfect  idleness  ;  as  a  rule  this  is 
the  poorest  method  of  obtaining  rest.  If  we  have  been 
exercising  the  mind  until  we  are  tired  from  study,  noth- 
ing will  restore  the  mental  vigor  better  than  some  gentle 
out-door  sport,  as  a  brisk  walk.  The  exercise  brings  a 
good  supply  of  fresh  blood  to  the  brain,  and  thus  aids  in 
giving  new  life  to  its  tissue. 

The  headaches  of  school  children  often  cease  before 
they  have  reached  their  homes  at  the  close  of  day. 
Amusements,  excursions,  and  a  change  in  the  character 
of  the  work,  all  tend  to  repair  the  waste  of  nervous 
energy,  and  are  far  better  than  idleness.  Complete 
rest  and  quiet  are  not  conducive  to  health  unless 


280  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

for  particular  reasons  they  have  been  ordered  by  a 
physician. 

Worry.  Above  all  things  do  not  worry.  Study  hard, 
play  hard,  enter  with  enthusiasm  into  all  the  duties  and 
pleasures  of  school  life,  but  do  not  worry.  Worry 
means  waste  — waste  of  nervous  force,  of  thought,  of 
memory;  and  it  is  a  sure  road  to  the  impairment  of  the 
highest  functions  of  the  brain.  While  it  is  true  that 
some  students  do  not  have  anxiety  enough  for  their  work, 
yet  it  is  equally  true,  especially  in  the  higher  grades, 
that  many  attempt  to  accomplish  altogether  too  much. 

Sleep.  One  of  the  great  restorers  of  both  mind  and 
body  is  sleep.  All  animals  having  a  well-developed  ner- 
vous system  take  rest  in  sleep.  Drowsiness  and  weari- 
ness warn  us  that  sleep  is  necessary.  These  warnings 
may  be  unheeded  for  a  time,  but  sooner  or  later  we 
have  to  yield  to  the  imperative  demand.  Some  persons 
require  more  sleep  than  others,  but  the  adult  needs,  on 
the  average,  from  seven  to  nine  hours.  It  is  said  that 
Napoleon  required  but  three  or  four  hours'  sleep  each 
day,  and  that  he  would  pass  days  with  very  little  rest  of 
any  kind.  Frederick  the  Great  required  but  little  sleep, 
not  over  five  hours  a  day.  These  are  marked  exceptions, 
though  it  is  a  fact  that  nearly  all  our  great  men  who  are 
obliged  to  do  an  immense  amount  of  brain  work  sleep 
well  and  long :  they  know  the  value  of  a  good  night's 
rest,  and  are  alarmed  when  they  are  unable  to  procure 
sleep.  They  know  that  during  their  busy  days  the 
waste  is  greater  than  the  repair,  and  that  during  the 
quiet  rest  of  the  night  the  cells  are  busy  repairing  the 
waste,  and  appropriating  new  material  for  the  labor  of 
another  day. 


THE   NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  281 

Insomnia.  Continued  wakefulness  often  becomes  a 
very  serious  affection,  and  many  men  have  lost  their 
health  by  the  inability  to  sleep.  If  persistent,  it  is  a 
dangerous  trouble  and  should  be  remedied  at  once,  if 
possible. 

To  promote  Sleep.  There  .are  many  popular  ways  of 
promoting  sleep,  nearly  all  of  which  make  a  bad  matter 
worse.  Out-door  exercise  during  the  day,  light  suppers, 
quiet  evenings,  and  warm  feet  will  greatly  promote 
sleep.  "  Keep  the  head  cool  and  the  feet  warm."  But 
sleep  will  often  refuse  to  come  if  the  tired  brain  is  filled 
with  cares,  griefs,  and  anxieties. 

Students  need  Much  Sleep.  Students  often  make  a 
great  mistake  in  trying  to  change  the  laws  of  nature, 
and  in  studying  until  late  into  the  night,  and  then  in 
sleeping  away  the  morning  hours.  It  is  only  necessary 
to  remember  that  at  night  the  brain  is  tired,  and  .an 
extra  effort  is  necessary  to  make  an  impression  upon  it ; 
while  in  the  morning  it  is  fresh  and  sensitive  and  easily 
impressed  ;  the  morning  is  the  time  for  study.  Earnest 
application  in  the  early  part  of  the  day,  concentrating 
the  mind  with  all  the  power  of  the  will,  and  laying  aside 
everything  else  but  the  work  in  hand,  —  these  will  soon 
prove  that  the  mornings  were  made  for  study,  the  even- 
ings for  relaxation,  and  the  nights  for  sleep. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  "nerve  current?" 

2.  How  fast  does  it  travel  ? 

3.  What  sets  the  nerve  current  in  operation  ?     Illustrate  this. 

4.  How  has  it  been  proved  that  the  cerebrum  is  the  seat  of  the 
intelligence  ? 

5.  Do  injuries  to  the  cerebellum  necessarily  destroy  consciousness  ? 


282  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 

6.  What  is  the  especial  function  of  the  cerebellum  ? 

7.  What  is  said  of  the  medulla  in  its  relation  to  life  ? 

8.  Name  some  of  the  centers  in  the  medulla. 

9.  What  controls  the  movements  of  respiration  ?     Illustrate  this. 

10.  What  centers  affect  the  movements 'of  the  heart? 

11.  WThat  center  controls  the  nerves  which  are  in  the  walls  of  the 
arteries  ? 

12.  What  is  the  normal  condition  of  this  vaso-motor  center? 

13.  When  the  function  of  this  center  is  checked,  what  occurs? 

14.  Give  the  physiology  of  blushing. 

15.  When  the  vaso-motor  center  acts  with  more  power  than  the 
normal,  what  occurs  ? 

16.  What  is  this  center  capable  of  doing? 

17.  The  spinal  cord  is  a  connecting  medium  between  what? 

18.  Give  another  function  of  the  cord.     How  illustrated  ? 

19.  What  three  things  are  necessary  for  a  reflex  act? 

20.  Is  reflex  action  ever  under  the  control  of  the  will?     How 
illustrated  ? 

21.  Describe  the  course  of  the  nerve  current  in  a  reflex  act. 

22.  Give   some  illustrations   showing  the  importance   of    reflex 
action. 

23.  Are  reflex  acts  ever  acquired  ?     Give  illustrations. 
24. ,  Give  a  definition  of  a  habit. 

25.    Give  some  illustrations  showing  that  by  frequent  repetition  of 
an  act  we  may  become  unconscious  of  it. 


THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  283 


CHAPTER   XXVIII. 

ALCOHOL  AND  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

AFTER  the  habit  of  indulgence  in  alcoholic  drinks  has 
been  fully  established  it  has  such  a  mastery  over  the 
whole  system  that  statements  or  warnings  of  any  kind 
have  little  effect.  But  it  is  doubfless  true  that  if  all 
young  men  knew  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  nervous 
system,  before  they  began  to  use  it,  few,  if  any,  would 
ever  try  the  experiment  of  taking  the  first  glass  ;  while 
it  is  certainly  as  true  that  no  right-minded  young 
woman,  possessed  of  a  like  knowledge,  would  ever  think 
of  offering  a  glass  to  a  friend. 

It  is  because  of  the  ignorance  of  the  terrible  power 
hidden  in  strong  drink  that  young  men  ever  begin  the 
use  of  alcohol  as  a  beverage.  "  One  glass  certainly  can- 
not do  me  any  harm,"  is  the  oft  repeated  statement. 
The  student  of  physiology  knows  full  well,  though,  that 
even  the  one  glass,  repeated  now  and  then,  has  the  power 
to  make  such  changes  in  the  tissues  and  organs  of  the 
body,  and  to  produce  such  a  marked  effect  on  the  nerve 
centers  that  breaking  away  from  it  will  be  very  difficult. 
And  some  day  it  will  be  discovered,  when  too  late  to  re- 
treat, that  a  habit  has  become  fastened  with  wonderful 
tenacity. 

There  are  two  classes  of  persons  who  begin  the  use  of 


284  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

alcoholic  beverages  :  those  who  honestly  think  there  may 
be  some  healing  virtue  in  their  power,,  and  therefore  take 
some  form  of  alcohol  as  a  tonic  ;  and  those  who  do  so 
for  no  particular  reason,  only  because  they  are  asked. 
The  persons  of  the  first  class  are  deceived  by  the  pri- 
mary narcotic  effects  of  the  alcohol,  which  by  deadening 
the  nerves  makes  them  feel  better  for  a  time,  and  so  the 
doses  are  repeated  until  the  habit  is  formed. 

Many  physicians  have  erred  in  prescribing  some  form 
of  alcohol  as  a  regular  medicine,  under  the  mistaken 
impression  that  it  is  a  food  and  tonic.  All  at  once 
the  patient  discovers  he  has  a  most  unnatural  desire 
for  his  medicine,  and  is  powerless  to  give  it  up.  To 
such  as  believe  that  there  is  virtue  in  alcohol  as  a  tonic, 
and  that  its  use  will  be  of  benefit  to  them  in  restoring 
health,  we  can  only  say  :  Never  prescribe  it  for  yourself 
any  more  than  you  would  prescribe  opium  or  strychnine, 
or  any  other  poison. 

The  wise  physician  of  to-day,  who  is  abreast  with  the 
modern  investigations  concerning  this  drug,  knows  how 
little  virtue  there  is  in  the  various  forms  of  alcoholic 
beverages  as  a  real  aid  in  combating  disease.  Doubt- 
less a  great  deal  of  alcohol  used  as  medicine-comes  from 
the  self -prescribing  of  those  who  take  it  because  they  like 
it.  A  better  understanding  of  its  physiological  action 
has  made  it  necessary  to  regard  alcohol  as  a  dangerous 
poison.  Some  of  the  most  competent  medical  men  in 
this  country  have  openly  declared  that  for  many  years 
they  have  never  ordered  a  single  dose  of  alcohol  in  any 
form,  and  that  there  are  better  and  safer  remedies  which 
can  be  given  in  its  place. 

To  the  second  class  belong  those  who  are  beginning 


THE  NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  285 

the  use  of  alcohol  because  some  one  offers  to  treat  them 
and  they  do  not  wish  to  refuse.  To  these,  and  also  to 
all  who  have  not  ventured  thus  far,  we  would  say : 
Study  carefully  the  following  effects  of  alcohol  on  the 
nervous  system,  and  then  calmly  decide  whether  the 
path  is  not  altogether  too  treacherous  and  dangerous 
to  enter  upon. 

The  most  striking  thing  about  alcohol  is  that  it  has  a 
special  affinity  for  nervous  tissue.  By  "  affinity  "  is 
understood  the  attraction  which  takes  place  between  the 
alcohol  and  the  tissues  of  the  body.  When  alcohol  is 
taken  into  the  body  it  affects  all  the  living  tissues,  but 
it  affects  them  in  different  degrees ;  it  has  some  affinity, 
or  attraction,  for  muscles,  some  for  the  blood,  some  for 
the  liver,  and  so  on  ;  but  of  all  the  tissues  in  the  body 
it  has  the  strongest  affinity  for  those  of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem. Thus,  if  after  death  from  the  effects  of  alcohol, 
the  tissues  are  separately  analyzed  by  the  chemist,  more 
alcohol  will  be  found  in  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  than 
in  any  other  tissue. 

The  brain  is  the  throne  of  the  intellect,  and  yet  it  is 
attacked  the  most  severely  of  any  of  the  tissues.  Where 
man  is  strongest,  there  does  alcohol  make  its  most 
powerful  attempt  to  overthrow  him.  Many  a  simple 
drug  can  do  great  damage  in  time  by  persistently  at- 
tacking one  of  the  less  important  tissues.  Many  diseases 
affect  the  less  important  organs  and  tissues  at  first,  and 
it  is  only  after  years  of  annoyance  that  the  general 
health  becomes  undermined.  But  alcohol  strikes  at 
once  with  its  full  power  at  that  which  is  highest  and 
most  important  to  man. 

In  the  preceding  chapter  it  is  taught  that  the  nervous 


286  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 

system  controls  all  the  functions  of  the  body  ;  anything 
which  affects  the  governing  body  must  affect  the  parts 
governed.  So  we  find  alcohol  affecting  with  the  greatest 
severity  that  which  is  the  most  central  and  vital.  Its 
affinity  for  nervous  tissue  is  so  great  that  it  has  been 
found  in  the  fluid  normally  present  in  the  brain,  and  it 
has  even  been  distilled  from  the  brains  of  those  who 
have  died  after  using  large  quantities  of  it. 

When  alcohol  is  taken  into  the  body  in  the  form  of 
some  kind  of  drink,  it  is  absorbed  into  the  circulation 
and  is  carried  to  all  the  tissues  of  the  body,  more  going 
to  the  nervous  tissue  than  to  any  other.  Its  effect  on 
this  tissue  is  that  which  must  follow  from  the  adminis- 
tration of  any  powerful  narcotic.  Alcohol  paralyzes 
nerve  tissue.  A  standard  medical  work  on  the  action 
of  the  various  drugs  on  the  human  system,  classifies 
alcohol  with  "  those  remedies  which  diminish  or  suspend 
the  functions  of  the  cerebrum  after  a  preliminary  stage 
of  excitement."  Webster  says  that  paralysis  is  the  com- 
plete or  partial  abolition  of  function.  Therefore  we  are 
correct  in  stating  that  alcohol  paralyzes  nerve  tissue; 
for  it  completely  or  partially  abolishes  the  functions  of 
the  nervous  system. 

A  standard  writer  on  materia  medica  says  that  the 
effects  of  alcohol  are  expended  chiefly  on  the  nervous 
system ;  this  fact  alone  is  enough  to  condemn  its  use  in 
any  form  as  a  beverage.  But  it  makes  itself  appear  to 
good  advantage  before  those  who  do  not  know  its  full 
effects,  because  of  its  power  to  first  excite  the  brain. 
We  understand  the  cause  of  this  excitement  when  we 
know  that  alcohol  paralyzes,  and  so  checks  the  action  of 
the  vaso-iiiotor  center,  causing  the  latter  to  release  its 


THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  287 

hold  over  the  muscular  walls  of  the  small  arteries.  As 
a  result  the  vessels  expand  and  more  blood  flows  through 
them,  and  following  this  enlargement  of  these  smaller 
blood  vessels  the  distant  pressure  is  removed  and  the 
heart  beats  faster.  The  more  rapid  flow  of  blood  arid 
the  enlarged  blood  vessels  bring  an  extra  supply  of 
blood  to  the  brain  and  thereby  it  becomes  greatly  ex- 
cited. The  flushed  face  is  the  result  of  the  same 
changes ;  the  walls  of  the  smaller  arteries  are  relaxed 
and  the  vessels  become  filled  with  blood,  thus  causing 
the  skin  to  appear  red.  In  the  light  of  these  facts  we 
must  regard  the  flushed  face  and  the  excitement  of  the 
brain  as  symptoms  of  a  temporary  paralysis  of  the  nerves 
which  control  the  circulation  of  the  blood  in  the  smaller 
arteries. 

Following  the  brief  period  of  excitement  produced  by 
alcohol,  other  effects  appear.  The  spinal  cord  becomes 
involved,  as  shown  by  the  irregular  action  of  the  parts 
under  its  more  immediate  control.  It  is  unable  to  fully 
perform  all  reflex  acts,  and  the  will  has  to  come  to  its 
aid.  Thus  the  act  of  walking  becomes  uncertain,  and  it 
requires  the  aid  of  the  will  to  order  the  movements  of 
the  proper  muscles.  The  loss  of  some  of  the  power  of 
the  spinal  cord  is  also  shown  in  the  trembling  of  the 
lips  and  the  uncertain  and  indistinct  speech.  A  little 
later  the  cord  loses  much  of  its  force  as  a  nerve  center, 
and  its  control  over  the  muscles  is  slight ;  then  the  mus- 
cles of  the  lower  limbs  become  weak  and  the  gait  is 
staggering.  All  this  means  a  temporary  paralysis  of 
the  nerve  centers.  The  centers  in  the  medulla  soon 
become  affected,  and  vomiting  is  likely  to  occur ;  this 
may  prove  beneficial  by  throwing  off  the  poison,  but 


288  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

usually  the  alcohol  has  been  all  absorbed  from  the 
stomach  before  vomiting  takes  place. 

When  the  stage  of  excitement,  or  increased  action  of 
the  brain  cells,  is  at  its  height,  the  cerebrum  acts  in  a 
still  more  excited  manner ;  the  nerve  cells  become  over- 
excited, and  the  animal  nature  of  man  assumes  control ; 
the  reason  is  overpowered  and  man  is  brought  to  a  level 
with  the  lower  animals.  The  muscles  are  no  longer  un- 
der control,  and  the  whole  system  seems  to  be  ruled  by 
some  strange  outside  power.  The  stage  of  excitement 
is  soon  over,  and  gradually  the  entire  brain  loses  its 
power ;  the  voluntary  muscles  no  longer  act ;  all  sensa- 
tion is  lost ;  and  the  body  becomes  nothing  more  than 
a  wonderful  piece  of  disordered  mechanism.  "  The 
functions  of  the  cerebrum  are  suspended." 

Yet  the  centers  in  the  medulla  are  still  active,  for  the 
heart  continues  to  beat  and  the  respiratory  muscles  con- 
tinue to  act.  These  two  centers  would  soon  become 
paralyzed  also,  and  the  heart  and  lungs  would  cease  to 
do  their  work,  were  it  not  that  by  reason  of  unconscious- 
ness the  person  takes  no  more  alcohol.  Herein  lies  the 
explanation  why  alcoholic  drinks  do  not  cause  more  sud- 
den deaths  ;  the  brain  loses  its  power  before  the  heart 
ceases  to  beat.  In  other  words,  the  poison  affects  the 
cerebrum  before  it  does  the  medulla.  The  man  becomes 
unconscious  before  he  has  taken  enough  to  check  the 
action  of  all  the  centers  in  the  medulla. 

If  alcohol  affected  the  nerves  which  keep  the  heart  in 
motion  before  it  did  the  consciousness,  it  would  cause  a 
vast  number  of  sudden  deaths.  But  it  may  be  urged 
that  this  is  an  over-drawn  picture  ;  that  it  is  an  illustra- 
tion of  drinking  to  complete  intoxication,  and  that  even 


THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  289 

those  addicted  to  the  use  of  alcohol  do  not  favor  such 
excesses.  We  must,  therefore,  study  the  effects  of  mod- 
erate and  frequently  repeated  doses  of  alcohol  on  the 
nervous  system. 

\Ve  must  fully  understand  that  alcohol  has  an  im- 
mediate and  direct  effect  on  nerve  tissue.  By  direct 
effect  is  understood  the  effect  produced  by  actual  con- 
tact of  the  alcohol  with  the  nerve  tissues :  for  some  of 
the  alcohol  taken  into  the  system  comes  in  direct  con- 
tact with  the  brain,  producing  most  marked  changes  in 
the  structure  of  that  organ.  This  statement  has  been 
proven  by  experiments,  by  chemical  analysis,  and  by 
microscopical  examinations,  —  sustained  by  the  reports 
of  eminent  men.  The  structure  of  the  brain  is  also 
changed,  indirectly,  by  the  poorer  quality  of  the  blood, 
by  the  impaired  circulation,  and  by  the  diminished  ac- 
tivity of  the  organs  of  excretion ;  thus  the  supply  of 
blood  is  less,  the  blood  itself  is  poorer  in  quality,  and 
the  channels  for  the  removal  of  the  waste  and  worn- 
out  materials  are  not  sufficiently  active. 

As  a  result  of  both  the  direct  and  indirect  effects  of 
alcohol  the  following  marked  changes  are  produced.  An 
eminent  medical  authority  says  that  after  the  continued 
use  of  alcohol  "  the  nerve  cells  of  the  gray  matter  are 
more  or  less  fatty  and  shrunken."  As  a  result  of  this 
shrinkage  he  says,  "  The  whole  cerebrum  becomes 
smaller,  and  the  space  thus  made  becomes  filled  with 
a  watery  fluid."  It  is  impossible  to  place  too  much 
emphasis  on  this  statement.  This  was  written  to  physi- 
cians and  medical  students  as  a  statement  of  the  facts 
concerning  the  action  of  one  of  the  many  drugs  used  in 
the  practice  of  medicine. 

19 


290  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

What  is  the  teaching  of  this  high  authority  ?  That  the 
continued  use  of  alcohol  actually  lessens  the  size  of  the 
brain ;  reduces  the  capacity  of  man  to  think ;  changes 
the  mysterious  and  wonderful  nerve  cells  so  that  they 
are  smaller  and  partly  changed  to  fat.  Space  once  occu- 
pied by  brain  tissue  becomes  filled  with  water.  Thus, 
in  this  cool  and  logical  way,  are  we  brought  face  to  face 
with  the  astounding  anatomical' fact,  that  alcohol  has  the 
power  to  "  steal  away  the  brains."  "  The  evidences  of 
these  changes  in  the  brain  and  cord,"  the  same  au- 
thority says,  "  are  seen  in  the  impaired  mental  power, 
the  muscular  trembling,  and  the  shambling  gait  of  the 
drunkard." 

It  would  seem  to  any  logical  mind  that  nothing  more 
need  be  said  to  prove  the  baneful  effects  of  strong  drink. 
The  knowledge  of  the  system  already  acquired  from  a 
study  of  the  preceding  chapters,  must  be  sufficient  to 
show  how  surely  alcohol  will  do  its  work,  and  also  how 
severe  that  work  will  be. 

But  testimony  accumulates  on  every  hand.  Dr.  Wil- 
liam A.  Hammond,  the  eminent  specialist  on  nervous  dis- 
eases, made  a  careful  study  of  the  effects  of  alcohol  on 
the  nervous  system.  If  it  had  any  special  virtue  he  was 
desirous  of  employing  it  in  his  practice.  By  numerous 
experiments  he  proved  its  powerful  poisoning  effects. 
He  says  :  "  Mankind  would  be  better  mentally,  morally, 
and  physically,  if  the  use  of  alcohol  were  altogether 
abolished." 

Delirium  Tremens.  This  is  one  of  the  horrible  effects 
of  alcoholic  poisoning.  It  may  follow  the  sudden  use 
of  a  large  quantity  of  alcohol,  even  from  a  single  intoxi- 
cation, although  it  is  usually  the  result  of  the  free  and 


THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  291 

long  continued  use  of  alcoholic  drinks.  There  is  no 
telling  at  what  time  it  may  attack  its  victim  ;  it  may 
be  when  he  first  begins  his  career,  or  after  years  of 
continued  drinking ;  it  may  come  to  those  physically 
strong,  or  to  the  very  weakest.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
horrible  effects  of  alcohol,  transforming  man  into  the 
wildest  and  fiercest  of  animals.  There  is  inability  to 
retain  food  and  all  the  voluntary  muscles  are  in  a 
tremor ;  the  patient  is  either  unable  to  procure  sleep  at 
all,  or  there  are  brief  periods  of  sleep,  interrupted  by 
the  most  terrifying  dreams ;  he  is  being  constantly 
pursued  by  horrible  insects  and  reptiles,  while  he  is 
unable  to  escape  from  them,  or  to  destroy  them.  Re- 
covery may  take  place  after  days  of  intense  agony,  or 
death  may  bring  relief  at  any  moment. 

THE    EFFECT    ON    THE    MIND. 

From  the  preceding  statements  it  logically  follows 
that  the  use  of  alcohol  diminishes  the  will  power.  Men 
who  are  proud  of  their  dress  and  speech,  and  who  pride 
themselves  on  their  proper  decorum,  become  foolish  and 
silly  when  slightly  intoxicated,  and  are  easily  provoked 
to  do  rash  things.  A  small  boy  can  so  provoke  a  slightly 
intoxicated  man  by  imitating  him  that  the  man  appears 
to  lose  all  control  of  himself.  Even  a  small  amount  of 
strong  drink  is  sufficient  to  make  some  people  more 
easily  annoyed  and  disturbed  than  when  perfectly  free 
from  the  effects  of  alcohol.  Thus  we  reason  that  the 
man  who  indulges  in  strong  drink,  but  not  to  the  extent 
of  intoxication,  does  not  have  full  control  of  his  mental 
and  moral  powers.  He  is  more  easily  provoked  and 


292  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

more  readily  yields  to  temptation.  Man  needs  all  the 
will  power  he  can  command,  to  successfully  meet  the 
many  trials  and  battles  of  life.  To  take  strong  drink 
is  to  weaken  his  mental  power,  and  by  so  much  to  di- 
minish his  chances  of  success  in  any  of  the  useful  activi- 
ties of  life. 

To  the  conclusions  of  logic  and  the  positive  statements 
of  medical  authority  as  to  the  undermining  and  weaken- 
ing of  the  mind  by  alcohol,  there  may  be  added  the  tes- 
timony gathered  from  the  records  of  courts  and  prisons. 
Statistics  show  that  a  large  percentage  of  the  various 
crimes  are  committed  while  the  persons  are  under  the 
influence  of  liquor.  Alcohol  blunts  all  the  finer  sensi- 
bilities, and  destroys  the  love  for  justice  and  fair  play. 
The  mind  is  trampled  upon  and  the  lower  animal  nature 
rules  the  body.  As  a  result,  deeds  are  committed  which 
would  never  be  considered  for  a  moment  if  the  higher 
nature  were  in  command ;  or,  in  other  words,  if  the  king 
were,  on  his  throne. 

Other  diseases  of  the  nervous  system  result  from  the 
use  of  alcoholic  beverages.  The  statistics  of  the  insane 
asylums  show  that  insanity  is  one  of  these  results. 
What  can  be  more  terrible  than  to  see  a  promising 
career  end  in  the  loss  of  reason,  and  to  find  that  strange 
and  wild  fancies  occupy  its  place  ?  In  France,  during 
the  last  war  with  Prussia,  it  was  found  that  over  one- 
half  of  all  the  cases  of  insanity  were  occasioned  by  the 
use  of  alcohol.  In  the  lunatic  asylum  at  Dublin,  "  nearly 
one  half  of  the  cases  were  known  to  be  caused  by  the  use 
of  alcohol  alone."  In  America  the  proportion  is  not  so 
great,  yet  it  is  surprisingly  large.  It  is  safe  to  assert 
that  of  one  hundred  insane  persons,  twenty  are  so  afflicted 


THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  293 

as  a  direct  result  of  the  use  of  alcohol,  and  thirty-five 
more  as  an  indirect  result,  making  in  all  fifty-five  of  each 
one  hundred  insane  persons  so  afflicted  on  account  of  the 
use  of  alcohol  in  some  form. 

Still  another  effect  is  seen  in  the  weak  nervous  sys- 
tems transmitted  by  drinking  parents  to  their  children. 
Some  form  of  nervous  disease  is  very  generally  inherited 
from  parents  addicted  to  strong  drink  ;  this  transmission 
makes  their  children  less  able  to  withstand  the  various 
diseases  of  childhood.  The  number  of  children  who 
die  from  weak  constitutions,  inherited  from  intemperate 
parents,  is  very  large  indeed.  With  stronger  constitu- 
tions they  would  be  able  to  survive  many  of  the  ailments 
incident  to  childhood,  but  they  appear  to  have  no  power 
to  resist  disease.  One  of  the  prominent  causes  of  infant 
mortality  in  our  large  cities,  if  the  truth  were  only  told, 
would  be  inherited  alcoholic  poisoning. 

The  children  of  intemperate  parents  are  likely  to  grow 
up  weak  in  body  and  mind.  Some  go  to  the  idiot  asy- 
lums, some  to  the  jails  and  prisons,  while  some  go  to 
the  retreats  for  the  insane.  Others,  however,  manfully 
fight  the  battle ;  though  tempted  as  none  others  are 
tempted,  they  conquer  ;  though  naturally  weak,  they  de- 
velop strength  ;  and  though  they  inherit  a  love  for  strong 
drink,  they  persistently  fight  for  its  overthrow. 

No  battlefield  has  records  of  victories  more  noble. 
When  these  triumphs  are  gained,  the  tide  of  evil  is 
turned  back  forever ;  a  fine  mental  organism  and  great 
will  power,  the  constituents  of  greatness,  are  gained ; 
and  the  person  who  inherited  weakness  is  now  a  source 
of  strength  to  all  who  are  associated  with  him. 


294  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 


OPIUM. 

Opium  is  a  most  powerful  drug,  and  is  classed  with 
alcohol  in  its  power,  first,  to  excite,  and  then  suspend 
the  functions  of  the  cerebrum.  Its  effects  are  more 
pronounced  than  those  of  tobacco,  and  are  fully  as 
severe  as  those  of  alcohol.  In  this  country  the  opium 
habit  is  generally  formed  as  a  result  of  the  use  of  opium 
to  relieve  pain.  The  individual  has  usually  been  a  great 
sufferer  and  the  physicians  have  been  obliged  to  prescribe 
some  form  of  opium  to  give  relief.  From  these  prescrip- 
tions for  relief  from  pain  the  patient  has  sometimes  been 
left  with  a  strong  desire  for  more  opium,  -and  by  repeat- 
edly yielding  to  the  desire  the  habit  has  been  formed. 

The  effects  of  opium  on  the  nervous  system  are  most 
pronounced  ;  it  causes  a  partial  paralysis  of  the  lower 
limbs,  giving  a  stooping  or  creeping  appearance ;  it  so 
interferes  with  all  the  functions  of  the  body  that  the 
nerve  centers  suffer  greatly  from  the  want  of  nourish- 
ment. Opium  has  a  wonderful  power  to  blunt  the  moral 
sensibility ;  the  opium-eater  will  do  anything  to  obtain 
the  drug  ;  the  mind  soon  becomes  enveloped  in  a  cloud, 
and  he  goes  about  in  a  dazed  stupor.  All  interest  in 
business  and  friends  is  lost,  and  the  one  dominant  idea 
is  how  to  procure  more  of  the  drug ;  to  do  this  he  will 
almost  invariably  deceive  in  every  possible  way.  If  he 
is  unable  to  get  his  accustomed  dose  he  suffers  the  most 
terrible  pains  both  in  mind  and  body. 


THE   NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  295 


QUESTIONS. 

% 

1.  What  knowledge  would  probably  keep  young  men  from  begin- 
ning  the  use  of  alcohol  ? 

2.  What   two  classes   of    persons  begin   the   use   of    alcoholic 
beverages  ? 

3.  How  are  those  of  the  first  class  deceived  ? 

4.  How  must  we  regard  alcohol  ? 

5.  What  do  some  competent  medical  men  declare  ? 

6.  What  advice  is  given  to  the  second  class  of  young  men? 

7.  What  is  the  most  striking  thing  about  alcohol  ? 

8.  What  do  you  understand  by  affinity  ? 

9.  What  tissue  is  attacked  most  severely  by  alcohol  ? 

10.  How  does  alcohol  affect  nervous  tissue  ? 

11.  With  what  remedies  is  alcohol  classed? 

12.  Give  a  definition  of  paralysis. 

13.  Where  are  the  effects  of  alcohol  chiefly  expended  ? 

14.  How  does  it  make  itself  appear  to  good  advantage? 

15.  What  is  the  result  of  checking  the  action  of  the  vase-motor 
center  ? 

16.  What  effect  does  the  extra  supply  of  blood  have  on  the  brain? 

17.  What  follows  the  brief   period  of   excitement   produced  by 
alcohol  ? 

18.  What  do  the  trembling  lips  and  the  uncertain  speech  show? 

19.  When  the  stage  of  excitement  is  at  its  height,  how  does  the 
cerebrum  act? 

20.  How  is  the  reason  affected? 

21.  Describe  the  condition  after  the  stage  of  excitement  is  over. 

22.  Why  do  not  alcoholic  drinks  cause  a  greater  number  of  sudden 
deaths? 

23.  When  taken  into  the  system,  does  alcohol  ever  come  in  direct 
contact  with  the  brain  ? 

24.  How  does  alcohol  affect  the  brain? 

25.  How  does  it  affect  the  will  power? 

26.  What  do  the  statistics  of  insane  asylums  show? 


296 


THE  ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 


THE   SENSE   OF  SIGHT. 


Protection  for  the  Eyes.  The  eyes  are  well  protected 
in  deep  sockets  of  bone,  called  the  orbits.  Externally 
they  are  protected  by  the  eyebrows,  the  eyelids  with 
their  glands,  and  the  lachrymal  glands.  The  nose 
is  also  a  valuable  protection  to  the  eyes. 

The  eyebrows  pro- 
ject over  the  eyes  and 
are  covered  with  a 
thick  growth  of  hair. 
The  hair  is  directed 
obliquely  outwards,  so 
that  the  perspiration 
from  the  forehead  is 
carried  to  the  side  of 

the     face,     instead     of         Fig.    lOO.     The  muscles  of  the  right 
running  directly   down    eyeball.     The  outer  bony  walls  of  the  or- 

into  the  eves.  w*  h*ve  been  'eraoved;  n(1)  the  .m^ 

which    turns    the    eyeball    upward;    (2) 

The  eyelids  are  thin   downward .   (3)  outward  ;  a  con-espond- 

CUrtainS  placed   direct-    ing  muscle  on  the  inner  side  moves  the 
ly  in  front  of   the   eye-    eyeball    inward ;     (4,    5)    muscles    which 

rotate  the  eyeball ;  (6)  a  pulley,  through 


balls.      In   the   centre 


which  the  tendon  of  the  muscle  (5)  moves. 


of  each  eyelid  is  a  thin 
plate  of  cartilage,  on  the  outside  of  which  is  a  thin 
muscle  covered  with  skin.  The  inside  of  the  lids  is 
lined  with  a  delicate  membrane,  called  the  conjunctiva. 


THE   SENSE   OF   SIGHT. 


297 


On  the  edges  of  the  lids  is  a  row  of  delicate  hairs,  called 
eyelashes.  They  protect  the  eyes  from  insects  and  par- 
ticles of  foreign  matter;  for  the  moment  any  foreign 
bodies  come  in  contact  with  the  lashes  the  lids  close, 
thus  preventing  the  objects  from  touching  the  eyeball. 
The  eyelids  keep  the  heat  and  cold  from  the  more  deli- 
cate parts  of  the  eye,  and  they  also  keep  out  an  excess 
of  light.  Their  most  important  function  is  to  cleanse 
the  eyes  and  to  keep  them  moist.  Their  rapid  and  fre- 
quent movements  thoroughly  remove  any  particles  of 
dust  from  the  front  of  the  eyeball,  while  at  the  same 
time  they  moisten  the  surface.  This  is  the  object  of 
winking,  which  is  usually  a  reflex  act,  although  it  may 
be  made  voluntary. 

The  Oil  Glands.      Oil    glands    are    situated   at   right 

angles  to  the  free  edges  of 
the  lids,  and  on  their  in- 
ner side.  They  can  be 
seen  on  the  inner  surface 
of  the  eyelids  through  the 
mucous  membrane,  look- 
ing like  strings  of  minute 
pearls.  They  extend  near- 
ly across  the  entire  width 
of  the  lids,  on  the  edges  of 
which  they  open  and  pour 
out  their  oily  secretion. 
This  keeps  the  lids  from  adhering  to  each  other,  and 
holds  back  the  tears  so  that  they  do  not  run  over  the 
edges  and  down  upon  the  face. 

The  Lachrymal   Gland.      The   lachrymal    gland   is   an 
almond-shaped  body   situated  in  the  outer   and   upper 


FIG.  101.  The  eyelids  of  the  right 
eye,  viewed  from  the  inside  :  (1)  the 
lachrymal  gland  ;  (2)  the  oil  glands 
in  the  eyelids. 


298 


THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 


part  of  each  orbit,  between  the  eyeball  and  the  bone. 
From  this  gland  there  extend  about  seven  ducts  or 
canals,  which  open  on 
the  inner  surface  of 
the  upper  eyelid  near 
its  outer  part.  The 
openings  are  ar- 
ranged in  a  row,  as 
represented  at  2,  Fig. 
102,  thus  distributing 
the  secretion  over  the 
surface  of  the  con- 
junctiva. 

The  Tears.  The 
watery  secretion 
from  the  lachrymal 
glands  is  known  as 
The  lachrymal  fluid. 
The  secretion  is  a  con- 
stant one,  although  we  are  unconscious  of  its  presence 
until  there  is  an  excessive  flow ;  the  fluid  is  evenly  dis- 
tributed by  the  movements  of  the  eyelids.  An  excessive 
amount  of  this  secretion  is  called  the  tears.  They  are 
easily  excited  by  irritants  placed  to  the  eye  or  nose ;  by 
laughing  and  crying ;  and  by  various  mental  emotions. 

Some  of  the  secretion  is  evaporated  from  the  eyeball, 
but  the  greater  part  of  it  escapes  from  the  eye  through 
regular  channels  provided  for  it.  The  secretion  flows 
toward  the  inner  angle  of  the  eye  where  it  enters  two 
openings,  one  in  either  lid.  This  opening  is  easily  seen 
on  the  lower  lid  as  a  black  point  in  the  center  of  a  little 
eminence  near  the  inner  corner  of  the  eye.  The  black 


FIG.  102.  Front  view  of  the  right  eye, 
showing  the  location  of  the  lachrymal  gland 
and  the  nasal  duct:  (1)  the  lachrymal 
gland  ;  (2)  the  ducts  that  carry  the  secre- 
tion from  the  gland  to  the  free  surface  of 
the  eyeball ;  (3)  the  duct  for  the  passage 
of  the  secretion  to  the  nose. 


THE   SENSE   OF   SIGHT.  299 

points  are  the  beginnings  of  two  ducts  which  pass  in- 
ward toward  the  nose,  as  seen  at  3,  Fig.  102. 

The  Eyeball.  The  eyeball  is  securely  protected  from 
injury  and  yet  it  has  a  most  extensive  range  of  sight. 
It  is  a  round  body  with  the  exception  that  its  front  part 
protrudes  more  than  the  other  parts.  From  the  front  to 
the  back  it  is  about  an  inch  in  length. 

The  eyeball  has  three  membranes  or  coats  surround- 
ing it.  The  outer  coat  consists  of  two  parts ;  the  poster- 
ior part,  which  is  very  thick  and  hard,  is  seen  coming 
toward  the  front  of  the  eye  where  it  is  called  "  the  white 
of  the  eye."  Because  it  is  so  very  toagh  and  hard,  it  is 
called  the  sclerotic ;  the  anterior  part  of  this  outer  coat 
is  transparent  and  is  called  the  cornea.  Through  this 
transparent  cornea  the  light  passes  into  the  interior  of 
the  eye. 

The  middle  coat  of  the  eye  is  called  the  choroid ;  it 
is  filled  with  dark  pigment  which  makes  it  look  quite 
black.  The  choroid  joins  a  membrane  in  front,  called 
the  iris,  in  the  center  of  which  is  an  opening,  called 
the  pupil.  In  the  iris  are  the  cells,  containing  a  color- 
ing matter,  which  give  the  characteristic  color  to  the 
eye.  The  size  of  the  pupil  can  be  changed  by  the  ac- 
tion of  certain  muscles :  the  muscles  are  involuntary  so 
that  they  only  contract  and  relax  as  a  result  of  some 
influence  outside  of  the  will.  A  bright  light  will  make 
the  muscles  of  the  iris  contract  so  that  the  pupil  be- 
comes much  smaller,  and  thus  but  little  light  reaches 
the  interior  of  the  eye.  If  the  light  be  very  faint,  other 
muscles  of  the  iris  contract,  enlarging  the  pupil,  and 
thus  allowing  more  light  to  enter. 

The  third,  or  inner  coat  of  the  eye  is  called  the  retina. 


300  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

The  miscroscope  shows  that  it  has  a  most  complicated 
structure,  and  that  it  is  directly  connected  with  the 
fibers  of  the  optic  nerve,  which  go  directly  to  the 
brain.  When  light  reaches  the  interior  of  the  eye,  it 


FIG.  103.  '  A  section  through  the  eyeball :  Ca,  the  cornea,  or  the  trans- 
parent membrane  which  forms  the  front  of  the  eye  ;  s,  the  sclerotic  ; 
c,  the  choroid  ;  K,  the  retina ;  o,  the  optic  nerve ;  B,  the  blind  spot  ; 
i,  the  iris  ;  L,  the  lens  ;  AH,  the  aqueous  humor  ;  VH,  the  vitreous  humor. 

produces  a  peculiar  impression  on  the  retina  ;  which 
impression  is  then  conveyed  along  the  optic  nerve  to 
the  brain ;  the  brain  transforms  the  impression  made 
upon  it  into  the  sensation  of  vision,  and  we  declare  we 
are  able  to  see.  When  any  object  is  viewed  the  exact 
image  of  it  is  produced  on  the  retina.  If  the  optic  nerve 
be  cut  the  image  will  still  be  formed,  but  no  sensation  of 


THE  SENSE  OF  SIGHT.  301 

light  will  reach  the  brain.    Therefore,  as  it  is  the  photog 
rapher  who  sees  and  not  his  camera,  so  it  is  the  brain 
which  sees  and  not  the  eye,  for  the  eye  is  simply  the 
camera. 

Functions  of  Parts.  The  eyeballs  may  be  likened  to  a 
room,  with  a  single  window  in  front.  Just  back  of  the 
window  hangs  a  dark  curtain  with  a  round  opening  in 
it.  All  light  entering  the  room  must  come  through  the 
window,  pass  through  the  opening  in  the  curtain,  and 
strike  the  opposite  wall.  The  transparent  cornea  is  the 
window ;  the  iris  is  the  dark  curtain  for  regulating  the 
amount  of  light ;  and  the  pupil  is  the  central  opening. 
The  choroid  is  black  to  prevent  the  reflection  of  light 
within  the  eye,  and  to  absorb  any  light  which  may  pass 
through  the  retina.  The  sclerotic  is  hard  and  firm, 
for  a  protection  to  the  eye  and  for  the  attachment  of 
muscles. 

The  Blind  Spot.  All  parts  of  the  retina  are  not  equally 
sensitive  to  light.  One  spot  on  it,  where  the  optic  nerve 


FIG.  104.    A  diagram  for  illustrating  the  existence  of  the  blind  spot. 

enters  (see  Fig.  103,  B),  is  entirely  insensible  to  light. 
This  is  called  the  blind  spot :  it  does  not  interfere  with 
vision  because  it  is  impossible  for  the  light  from  an  object 
to  fall  on  the  blind  spot  of  both  eyes  at  once.  If  certain 
rays  fall  on  the  blind  spot  of  one  eye,  they  will  fal*  on 


302  THE   ESSENTIALS  01    HEALTH. 

a  different  part  of  the  retina  of  the  other  eye.  But  if 
one  eye  be  closed  there  is  always  some  portion  of  the  ob- 
ject before  us  which  is  invisible.  This  is  easily  proved 
by  looking  at  a  sharply  denned  object  after  the  following 
manner :  .  Close  the  left  eye  and  look  steadily  at  the 
small  white  circle  to  the  left  of  Fig.  104 :  it  is  possible 
now  to  see  the  large  white  circle  even  when  the  eye  is 
fixed  on  the  smaller  one.  Hold  the  book  vertically  on 
a  level  with  the  eyes  at  a  convenient  distance.  Now 
move  the  book  slowly  backward  and  forward.  Soon  a 
distance  will  be  found  where  the  large  circle  entirely 
disappears,  only  to  reappear  again  as  the  book  is  moved 
nearer  or  farther  from  the  eye.  This  is  because  the 
light  from  the  large  circle,  when  it  entered  the  eye  at 
a  certain  angle,  fell  on  the  retina  just  where  the  optic 
nerve  enters. 

Color-Blindness.  Color-blindness  may  be  total  or  par- 
tial. When  total,  all  objects  appear  gray.  These  cases 
are  very  rare.  The  usual  cases  of  color-blindness  are 
those  where  the  persons  cannot  distinguish  between  red 
and  green.  This  is  a  serious  defect  especially  if  occur- 
ring in  engineers  who  depend  upon  the  green  and  red 
light  signals  at  depots,  railroad  yards,  etc. 

Short-Sightedness.  Long-Sightedness.  In  a  normal  eye 
an  image  of  all  objects  seen  distinctly  is  formed  on  the 
retina.  If  the  eye  is  too  deep,  if  its  diameter  from  be- 
fore, backward,  is  too  great,  then  the  image  is  formed  in 
front  of  the  retina  and  appears  blurred.  If  the  object  be 
held  very  near  the  eye  however,  the  image  is  formed  on 
the  retina  and  vision  is  distinct.  As  the  field  of  distinct 
vision  is  thus  limited  to  near  objects,  the  defect  is  called 
near  or  short  sightedness.  It  is  remedied  by  wearing 


THE   SENSE   OF   SIGHT. 

concave  glasses.  In  long-sightedness,  either  the  eye 
is  not  deep  enough,  or  the  lens  may  not  be  of  the 
proper  curve.  This  is  quite  a  common  defect  after  40 
or  50  years  of  age.  It  is  remedied  by  wearing  convex 
glasses. 

Care  of  the  Eyes.  The  eyes  may  look  bright  and  clear, 
yet  if  their  use  in  reading  is  followed  by  pain  in  the 
head,  it  is  probable  that  there  is  some  defect  in  vision. 
A  clear  and  steady  light  is  most  desirable  ;  a  dim  light 
makes  it  necessary  to  put  forth  an  effort  to  see,  while  a 
strong  light  is  equally  injurious.  Looking  at  a  brilliant 
light,  as  the  sun,  is  positively  injurious.  The  light 
should  come  from  over  the  shoulder,  so  that  it  may 
fall  on  the  page  of  the  book  without  coming  directly 
into  the  face.  Squinting,  or  looking  cross-eyed,  or 
rolling  the  eyes  about,  as  is  often  done  by  children 
in  sport,  is  a  dangerous  thing  to  do,  as  some  of  the 
muscles  of  the  eyeball  may  be  severely  strained  by  so 
doing. 

The  upright  position  is  the  natural  and  proper  one 
for  reading.  Reading  while  lying  down,  especially  in 
bed,  is  a  very  unwise  practice.  The  book  should  be 
held  from  twelve  to  sixteen  inches  from  the  face  when 
reading.  Those  who  cannot  see  ordinary  type,  unless 
the  book  is  nearer  than  ten  inches,  should  consult  an 
oculist  and  ascertain  if  it  would  not  be  best  to  wear 
glasses.  Never  rub  the  eyes,  for  any  reason,  especially 
if  some  particle  of  dirt  has  fallen  into  them ;  have  all 
such  objects  carefully  removed  at  once  by  some  com- 
petent person.  Whenever  the  eyes  are  inflamed,  consult 
a  physician. 


304  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

ALCOHOL    AND    THE    EYES. 

The  bleared  eyes  of  the  hard  drinker  only  too  clearly 
show  the  effects  of  this  poison  on  the  delicate  tissues  of 
the  eye.  The  blood  vessels  of  the  conjunctiva,  entirely 
invisible  in  health,  become  distended  to  their  utmost 
with  blood,  giving  the  eyes  a  most  undesirable  appearance. 
Here  the  cause  is  the  same  as  has  been  previously  de- 
scribed. The  vaso-motor  center,  in  the  medulla,  is  so 
affected  that  the  vaso-motor  nerves  release  their  control 
over  the  smaller  arteries ;  the  muscular  walls  relax ; 
and  the  vessels  become  engorged  with  blood.  If  they 
remain  in  this  condition  too  long  they  will  not  return 
to  their  former  size,  even  if  no  more  alcohol  be  taken. 
But  if  the  habit  be  discontinued  early,  it  is  possible 
under  proper  medical  treatment  to  restore  the  parts  to 
health.  Inflammation  of  the  eyes  is  only  one  of  the 
many  serious  effects  of  alcohol  on  the  various  organs 
and  tissues  of  the  body.  In  a  recent  treatise  on  diseases 
of  the  eye  this  statement  occurs:  "It  is  a  well-estab- 
lished fact  that  long  continued  and  frequent  indulgence 
in  small  quantities  of  spirits  is  very  deleterious  to  the 
eyesight.  The  persistent  morning  nausea,  muscular 
tremors,  sleeplessness,  and  dull  headaches  that  plague 
the  chronic  drinker,  are  likely  to  be  associated  with 
degeneration  of  the  optic  nerve  tissues." 

A  very  noted  oculist  examined  the  eyes  of  one  thou- 
sand persons  who  were  known  to  be  addicted  to  the  use 
of  strong  drink.  IJe  reported  that  of  these  one  thousand 
cases,  three  hundred  had  eye  affections  of  some  kind. 
In  one  hundred  and  eighty  cases  the  affections  were  of  a 
severe  nature.  He  gave  it  as  his  opinion  that  alcohol 
the  cause  of  the  disease  in  each  of  these  eases. 


THE  SENSE  OF  SIGHT. 


TOBACCO    AND    THE    EYES. 

The  edges  of  a  smoker's  eyelids  are  often  inflamed  as 
a  result  of  contact  with  the  irritating  smoke.  Often 
the  smoker  experiences  sharp  pains  in  the  eyeballs, 
with  slight  failure  of  vision. 

The  most  serious  results  to  the  eyes  sometimes  follow 
the  use  of  tobacco ;  one  of  these  is  known  as  "  smokers' 
blindness."  The  most  careful  examinations  of  the  eye 
fail  to  discover  any  change  in  its  structure,  yet  gradually 
the  vision  becomes  less  and  less  until  complete  blindness 
results.  We  have  the  testimony  of  a  number  of  eminent 
oculists  to  the  effect  that  persistent  smoking  by  the 
young  causes  frequent  and  severe  affections  of  the  eyes. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  How  are  the  eyes  protected? 

2.  Describe  the  eyelids. 

3.  What  membrane  lines  them  ? 

4.  Of  what  use  are  the  eyelids? 

5.  What  is  the  object  of  the  oil  glands? 

6.  Where  are  the  lachrymal  glands? 

7.  What  outlet  is  provided  for  the  lachrymal  fluid? 

8.  How  many  membranes  surround  the  eyeball? 

9.  Name  the  posterior  part  of  the  outer  membrane.     The  an 

terior  part. 

10.  Where  is  the  choroid ?     The  iris?     The  pupil? 

11.  WThat  is  the  inner  coat  of  the  eye  called? 

12.  With  what  is  the  retina  connected? 

13.  Why  is  the  choroid  black?     Why  is  the  sclerotic  hard? 

14.  Where  is  the  blind  spot  of  the  eye? 

15.  Look  at  Fig.  104,  as  suggested  on  page  302. 

20 


306  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 


CHAPTEE  XXX. 

THE  SENSES  OF  TASTE  AND  SMELL. 

The  Tongue.  The  sense  of  taste  is  located  in  the 
tongue,  the  back  part  of  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  and. 
to  a  slight  extent,  in  the  sides  of  the  throat.  The 
mucous  membrane  of  the  tongue,  however,  is  more 
especially  the  seat  of  this  sense.  The  tongue  is  com- 
posed of  voluntary  muscle,  covered  with  mucous  mem- 
brane. In  health,  it  is  moist  and  of  a  light-red  coior. 
Any  marked  change  from  this  condition  is  an  indication 
of  some  departure  from  health.  Thus  the  appearance 
of  the  tongue  often  gives  aid  to  the  physician  in  ascer- 
taining the  source  and  character  of  the  disease. 

Papillae  of  the  Tongue.  The  mucous  membrane  of 
the  tongue  is  covered  with  a  great  number  of  papillae. 
In  these  papillae  are  found  blood  vessels,  nerves,  glands, 
and  "  taste  buds."  There  are  three  varieties  of  papillae 
on  the  surface  of  the  tongue.  The  largest  papillae  can 
be  seen  by  the  unaided  eye  ;  they  are  far  back  at  the 
base  of  the  tongue,  arranged  in  the  form  of  the  letter 
V,  with  the  point  of  the  V  toward  the  back.  There  are 
eight  or  ten  of  these,  each  consisting  of  a  central  pa- 
pilla surrounded  by  a  wall.  The  second  variety  can 
also  be  seen  with  the  unaided  eye,  scattered  freely  over 
the  surface  of  the  tongue.  These  papillae  are  easily 


THE   SENSES   OF   TASTE   AND   SMELL. 


307 


recognized  by  their  deep-red  color,  and  because  they  are 
larger  than  the  third  variety.  They  are  most  abundant 
at  the  tip  of  the  tongue,  where  they  present  a  club-shaped 


FIG.  105.    The  tongue,  showing  the  varieties  of  papillae. 

appearance.  The  third  variety  is  the  most  numerous 
of  all.  The  papilla?  are  minute  in  size  and  are  evenly  dis- 
tributed over  the  surface  of  the  tongue.  They  are  of  a 
whitish  color,  owing  to  their  thick  epithelial  covering. 


308 


THE   ESSENTIALS   OF  HEALTH. 


\rt 


In  some  of  the  papillae  are  found  loops,  or  coils,  of 
minute  blood  vessels ;  in  others  there  is  the  ending  of  a 
nerve  fiber,  giving  the  sense  of  touch  to  the  tongue  ; 
while  in  the  other  papillae  are  minute  bodies,  especially 
for  the  sense  of  taste. 

The  Taste  Buds.  The  taste  buds  are  found  in  the 
large  papillae  at  the  base  of  the  tongue ;  and  a  few  are 

also  distributed  to 
other  papillae.  They 
are  collections  of 
cells  arranged  in  the 
form  of  buds,  hence 
called  taste  buds. 
Each  bud  is  not  over 
3^-0  of  an  inch  in 
length.  The  loca- 
tion of  these  bodies, 
in  the  edges  of  the  papillae,  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  106.  It 
is  seen  that  they  are  situated  in  the  folds  between  the 
papillae,  rather  than 
on  the  upper  free 
surface.  Fig.  107 
shows  some  of  these 
bodies  more  highly 
magnified.  Some 
of  the  cells  compos- 
ing each  bud  are 
directly  connected 
with  a  nerve  fiber  so  that  whenever  anything  comes  in 
contact  with  these  cells  an  impression  of  its  "taste" 
is  conveyed  down  the  cells  and  along  the  nerve  fibers  to 
the  brain. 


FIG.  106.  A  section  through  two  papillae 
of  the  tongue,  showing  the  taste  buds,  at  A, 
magnified. 


FIG.  107. 


Three  of  the  taste  buds  of  Fig. 
106,  highly  magnified. 


THE   SENSES  OF  TASTE  AND  SMELL.         309 

The  Sense  of  Taste.  There  are  four  different  qualities 
of  taste.  We  have  the  sensations  of  sweet,  bitter,  acid, 
and  saline.  In  order  that  any  of  these  may  be  appre- 
ciated, the  substance  must  be  dissolved.  Dry  sugar 
placed  on  a  perfectly  dry  tongue  produces  no  sensation 
of  sweetness.  Some  of  it  must  be  dissolved  before  any 
effect  is  produced  on  the  cells  of  the  taste  buds.  The 
saliva  aids  in  this,  although  there  are  mucous  and  se- 
rous glands  in  the  tongue  which  secrete  a  watery  fluid. 
The  movements  of  the  tongue  promote  the  flow  of  these 
secretions,  and  thus  aid  in  dissolving  the  substances  and 
in  distributing  them  over  a  greater  surface.  The  sense 
of  taste  can  be  greatly  improved  by  practice,  while  it  is 
materially  aided  by  the  sense  of  smell. 

Confusion  of  Taste  and  Smell.  The  senses  of  smell 
and  taste  are  often  confused.  Many  times  we  believe 
we  taste  a  substance  when  it  is  only  the  odor  which  is 
perceived.  It  is  stated  that  neither  vanilla  nor  garlic 
has  any  taste ;  it  is  their  odor  alone  which  is  noticed. 
The  odor  of  a  drug  is  often  more  disagreeable  than  its 
taste ;  for  this  reason  many  medicines  are  best  taken 
after  first  closing  the  nose  and  thus  shutting  off  the  odor. 
A  severe  cold  is  said  to  affect  the  sense  of  taste ;  this  is 
because  the  lining  membrane  of  the  nose  is  inflamed, 
and  we  are  unable  to  distinguish  odors.  In  man  the 
sense  of  taste  is  more  highly  developed  than  that  of 
smell,  while  in  some  of  the  lower  animals,  as  the  dog, 
the  sense  of  smell  is  the  more  acute. 

Taste  Easily  Changed.  The  taste  of  many  substances 
which  were  at  first  very  pleasant  may  become  disagree- 
able because  of  too  frequent  use,  or  of  unpleasant  asso- 
ciations ;  many  articles  of  food  are  distasteful  when 


310  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

first  used,  but  after  a  time  they  are  greatly  desirecL 
Many  persons  have  had  to  make  repeated  trials  before 
becoming  fond  of  oysters,  tomatoes,  or  olives ;  they  began 
by  using  a  small  amount  and  then  gradually  educated 
their  sense  of  taste,  until  a  fondness  for  them  was  ac- 
quired. Habit  has  much  to  do  with  this ;  we  like  and 
dislike  those  things  which  we  are  in  the  habit  of  seeing 
other  members  of  the  family  like  and  dislike.  Disease 
often  perverts  the  taste,  so  that  persons  will  drink  vine- 
gar, and  eat  chalk  and  plaster. 

Impressions  of  Taste  Remain.  If  a  very  sweet  or  a  very 
bitter  substance  be  placed  in  the  mouth  and  then  removed 
from  it,  the  taste  is  retained  for  some  ,time.  Therefore, 
if  one  substance  be  tasted  and  then  quickly  followed  by 
others  of  different  tastes  the  impressions  will  be  confused. 
If  the  taste  of  the  first  was  well  marked  it  may  impart  its 
qualities  to  those  following.  Therefore,  to  take  a  medi- 
cine which  has  a  disagreeable  odor  and  taste,  first  take 
into  the  mouth  some  strongly  flavored  substance ;  hold 
the  nose,  to  shut  out  the  odor,  and  then  swallow  the 
dose.  In  this  manner,  for  reasons  already  given,  there 
will  be  little  recognition  of  the  drug.  Young  persons 
often  form  the  habit  of  eating  cloves  and  other  spices : 
this  is  very  harmful,  not  only  because  it  is  likely  to  in- 
jure the  sense  of  taste,  but  also  because  it  seriously  dis- 
turbs the  action  of  the  stomach. 

Tobacco  and  Taste.  Tobacco  blunts  the  sense  of  taste. 
This  is  exactly  what  we  should  expect,  for  the  papillae  of 
the  tongue  become  saturated  with  the  tobacco  flavor,  and 
the  taste  buds  are  impaired  by  their  contact  with  the 
poisonous  properties  of  the  nicotine.  The  taste  of  to- 
bacco is  continuously  in  the  mouth,  and  in  order  to 


THE   SENSES   OF   TASTE   AND   SMELL. 


311 


taste  other  substances,  they  must  be  highly  spiced ; 
this  leads  to  disorders  of  the  stomach  as  already 
described. 

The  Nose.  The  sense  of  smell  is 
located  in  the  nose.  The  two  open- 
ings which  lead  into  the  nose  are 
called  the  nostrils.  They  are  sur 
rounded  by  a  number  of  fine  hairs, 
which  aid  in  keeping  foreign  bodies 
from  entering  the  nasal  cavities. 
The  framework  of  the  nose  con-  FlG>  108.  Transverse 

sists  of  bone  and  cartilage.     A  thin      section  of  the  framework 

wall,  called  the  septum,  divides  the 
interior  into  two  cavities ;  these 
are  irregular  in  shape  and  extend 
from  the  nostrils,  in  front,  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  pharynx,  behind. 


of  the  nose  :  (1)  the  nasal 
cavities.  On  the  outside 
of  each  cavity  are  the 
curved  turbinated  bones ; 
(2)  the  bones  forming  the 
roof  of  the  mouth  and  the 
floor  of  the  nasal  cavities. 
The  black  represents  the 
bone,  the  lighter  shade 
represents  the  mucous 
membrane  covering  the 
bone. 


The  inside  of  each,  or 
the  side  toward  the 
median  line,  is  smooth, 
because  the  septum  it- 
self is  smooth  ;  but  the 
outside  is  most  irregu- 
lar, owing  to  the  pres- 
ence of  three  curved 
or  scroll-like  bones, 
called  the  turbinated  bones.  These  are  well  shown,  as 
viewed  from  the  side,  in  Fig.  109.  Lining  each  nasal 


FIG.  109.    The  outside  of  the  left  nasal 
cavity,  showing  the  three  turbinated  bone. 


312 


THE   ESSENTIALS   OF  HEALTH. 


cavity  is  a  mucous  membrane,  which  is  especially  thick 
over  the  turbinated  bones. 

The  Olfactory  Nerve.  The  nerve  of  smell  is  called  the 
olfactory  nerve.  It  arises  from  the  lower  and  front  part 
of  the  brain,  and  passes  down  through  minute  openings 
in  the  skull  just  beneath  it.  Its  line  fibers  are  distrib- 
uted to  the  upper  half  of  the  mucous  lining  of  the 
nose;  therefore  only  this  part  of  the  nasal  cavity  has 
the  sense  of  smell.  The  lower  half  is  endowed  with 

ordinary  sensibility  so 
that,  when  irritated  in 
any  way,  it  causes  the 
reflex  act  of  sneezing. 

The  Sense  of  Smell.  We 
know  little  about  the 
action  of  odorous  bodies ; 
we  cannot  see  an  odor, 
neither  can  it  be  meas- 
ured. Musk  has  been 
placed  in  an  open  dish  in 

FIG.  110.     The  right  nasal  cavity,      a  room  for  many  months, 


showing  the  termination  of  the  olfac- 


during  which  time  it  was 


tory  nerve  :   T,  the  turbinated  bones, 

as  represented   in  Fig.   109;    o,  the  Constantly    giving     off     a 

olfactory  bulb,  lying  beneath  the  front  powerful     odor,     yet    its 

part  of  the  cerebrum,  c  ;  B,  the  bony  wejg]lt  was  not  diminished 


floor  on  which  rests  the  cerebrum. 


during    the    entire    time. 


We  simply  know  that  certain  substances  give  off  a  gas- 
eous or  vaporous  material ;  that  this  material  pervades 
the  surrounding  atmosphere ;  and  that  it  is  often  in- 
haled with  the  inspired  air.  We  know  further,  that  it 
may  produce  a  peculiar  effect  on  the  olfactory  nerve, 
giving  us  the  sense  of  smell. 


THE   SENSES   OF   TASTE   AND   SMELL.          313 

Conditions  Affecting  this  Sense.  In  order  to  appre- 
ciate the  odor  of  a  substance,  it  must  be  brought  to 
the  olfactory  nerve  in  a  gaseous  or  vaporous  condition. 
Solid  or  liquid  bodies,  in  the  nose,  do  not  produce  any 
sense  of  smell.  This  is  easily  proved  by  filling  the  nose 
with  rose  water ;  after  so  doing,  no  odor  of  the  rose  is 
perceived. 

The  continued  influence  of  an  odor  blunts  the  acute- 
ness  of  smell.  This  is  illustrated  in  every-day  life. 
Upon  first  entering  a  room  we  may  notice  the  odor  of 
escaping  gas,  while  in  a  short  time  we  become  uncon- 
scious of  its  presence  ;  we  notice  that  a  room  is  "  close  " 
only  when  we  first  enter  it.  In  all  such  cases  the  first 
impressions  should  be  the  guide.  Some  persons  are  ex- 
tremely susceptible  to  odors  of  all  kinds ;  they  not  only 
detect  the  least  pleasant  or  unpleasant  odors,  but  they 
are  often  made  ill  by  them.  In  some  people  the  inhala- 
tion of  certain  powders  excites  violent  inflammation  of 
the  nasal  passages. 

The  sense  of  smell  may  be  greatly  developed.  It  is 
related  of  a  certain  boy  named  James  Mitchell,  who  was 
born  deaf,  dumb,  and  blind,  that  he  could  accurately 
identify  many  objects,  simply  by  the  sense  of  smell. 
Repeated  and  short  contacts  of  an  odor  with  the  nasal 
mucous  membrane  favor  the  development  of  the  sen- 
sation. It  appears  that  the  odor  impresses  the  olfac- 
tory nerve  at  the  first  moment  of  contact.  Therefore 
repeated  sniffings,  or  rapid  inspirations  through  the 
nose,  give  a  more  exact  impression  of  the  odor.  If  sub- 
stances of  different  odors  be  placed  near  the  nostrils, 
they  will  not  be  confused,  but  first  one  odor  and  then 
the  other  will  be  perceived. 


314  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

Use  of  Sense  of  Smell.  The  sense  of  smell  is  of  use 
in  many  ways  :  it  aids  in  the  choice  of  foods,  for,  as  a 
rule,  food  which  has  a  tainted  odor  is  unfit  for  use ;  and 
it  aids  in  the  detection  of  impurities  in  the  air.  It  is 
placed  at  the  very  entrance  of  the  air  into  the  body  to 
give  warning  of  approaching  danger.  It  is  true  that 
this  sense  does  not  warn  us  of  the  poisonous  agents  in 
the  air  which  cause  the  contagious  diseases,  yet  it  does 
give  notice  of  offensive  vapors  which  are  dangerous  to 
inhale.  Vapors  which  are  irritating  to  the  nose  would 
be  much  more  so  to  the  more  delicate  tissues  of  the 
lungs.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  in  the  majority  of  cases, 
disagreeable  odors  mean  dangerous  odors. 

Often  Highly  Developed.  In  some  of  the  lower  ani- 
mals the  sense  of  smell  is  developed  to  a  marvelous 
degree.  The  capabilities  of  the  dog  are  none  the  less 
wonderful  because  so  commonly  observed.  Nearly  every 
one  can  tell  some  wonderful  stories  of  this  animal, 
whe're  the  power  to  detect  obscure  odors  is  concerned. 
We  all  know  how  he  will  return  home  after  having  been 
taken  away  long  distances ;  how  he  will  follow  many 
feet  behind  his  master  through  crowded  streets  and 
into  crowded  halls  ;  how  he  will  recognize  clothing ; 
and  how  he  will  follow  the  trail  of  the  fox  for  many 
miles.  Other  animals,  as  the  lion,  can  tell  of  the  ap- 
proach of  man,  or  if  any  prey  be  near ;  while  the  deer 
can  detect  "  in  the  air  "  the  approach  of  an  enemy  when 
a  great  distance  away. 

Catarrh.  Catarrh  is  usually  the  result  of  repeated  in- 
flammation of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  nose.  As  a 
result  the  tissues  are  swollen  and  thickened,  so  that  it  is 
very  difficult  to  breath  through  the  nose.  This  makes  it 


THE   SENSE   OF   TASTE   AND   SMELL.  315 

necessary  to  breathe  through  the  mouth,  which  is  a  great 
source  of  throat  trouble.  Catarrh  also  results  from  de- 
formed bones  of  the  nose.  The  septum  is  bent  over  to 
one  side,  nearly  or  completely  closing  that  nasal  cavity. 
This  may  necessitate  breathing  through  the  mouth.  The 
great  majority  of  cases  of  catarrh  can  be  cured  by  proper 
treatment. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  Give  a  general  description  of  the  tongue. 

2.  How  many  varieties  of  papillae  on  it? 

3.  What  are  found  in  these  papillas? 

4.  Where  are  the  taste  buds  found?     What  are  they? 

5.  What  varieties  or  qualities  in  the  sensation  of  taste? 

6.  Why  cannot  dry  substances  be  tasted? 

7.  What  fluids  aid  in  dissolving  the  substances  to  be  tasted? 

8.  Illustrate  how  the  sensations  of  taste  and   smell  are  often 
confused. 

9.  Do  impressions  of  taste  remain  ?    Illustrate. 

10.  How  does  tobacco  affect  the  taste? 

11.  Where  are  the  turbinated  bones  ? 

1 2.  What  is  the  name  of  the  nerve  of  smell  ? 

13.  What  part  of  the  nasal  cavity  is  endowed  with  the  sense  of 
smell  ? 

14.  Is  much  known  about  the  action  of  odorous  bodies? 

15.  State  some  of  the  things  known. 

16.  Give  some  of  the  conditions  affecting  the  sense  of  smell. 

17.  How  is  this  sense  useful  to  us? 

18.  Give  some  illustrations  showing  how  highly  it  may  be  de- 
veloped. 


316  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 

THE    SENSE    OF    HEARING-. 

The  Organ  of  Hearing.  The  organ  of  hearing  consists 
of  three  parts:  the  external  ear;  the  middle  ear;  and 
the  internal  ear.  The  vibrations  of  the  air  are  collected 
by  the  external  ear,  received  by  the  middle  ear,  and 
transmitted  through  its  bones  to  the  inner  ear.  The 
inner  ear  contains  the  termination  of  the  nerve  of  hear- 
ing, or  the  auditory  nerve. 

The  External  Ear.  The  external  ear  consists  of  a 
framework  of  cartilage  which  is  loosely  attached  to  the 
bones  of  the  head  and  to  the  auditory  canal.  The  ear  can 
be  slightly  moved  by  the  action  of  certain  muscles,  al- 
though in  man  this  is  barely  perceptible.  In  the  lower 
animals  the  movements  are  very  extensive.  The  ear  is 
quickly  changed  from  one  position  to  another  to  better 
catch  the  sound  coming  from  any  quarter.  In  these 
animals  the  ears  aid  greatly  in  giving  expression. 

The  auditory  canal  is  about  an  inch  or  an  inch  and  a 
quarter  in  length,  and  extends  from  the  external  open- 
ing to  the  middle  ear.  Near  the  orifice  are  a  number  of 
fine  hairs,  and  farther  in  are  the  openings  of  glands 
which  secrete  the  earwax.  Both  the  hairs  and  wax  are 
for  the  protection  of  the  ear,  keeping  out  small  insects, 
dust,  and  other  foreign  bodies. 


THE  SENSE   OF   HEARING.  317 

The  Middle  Ear.  The  middle  ear,  or  tympanum,  is  an 
irregular  shaped  cavity  about  one  half  an  inch  in  length, 
and  one  fourth  an  inch  from  side  to  side.  It  is  called  "  the 
drum  of  the  ear,"  because  it  contains  air  and  has  a  thin 
membrane  over  one  part  of  it  which  is  easily  affected  by 
wave  sounds.  The  middle  ear,  or  the  drum,  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  auditory  canal  by  a  thin  membrane. 


T 

FIG.  111.  The  ear  :  c,  the  auditory  canal,  that  leads  to  the  middle 
ear ;  M,  the  middle  ear,  or  drum.  The  tympanic  membrane  is  the  curved 
white  line  to  the  left  of  the  letter  M;  i,  the  inner  ear;  N,  the  auditory 
nerve  going  to  the  brain  ;  T,  the  Eustachian  tube,  leading  from  the  middle 
ear  to  the  upper  part  of  the  pharynx. 

called  the  tympanic  membrane  ;  this  is  often  called  the 
"  drum,"  but  incorrectly  so,  as  it  is  only  the  thin  mem- 
brane over  the  head  of  the  drum ;  it  is  elastic,  and  so 
thin  that  it  is  nearly  transparent.  A  study  of  Fig.  Ill 
will  aid  in  locating  the  parts  already  mentioned.  The 
external  ear  with  the  auditory  canal,  C,  is  very  evident. 
The  middle  ear,  M,  is  separated  from  the  outer  ear,  by 
a  curved  white  line  which  represents  the  tympanic 


318 


THE   ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 


membrane.  Directly  above  the  letter  M,  are  three  mi- 
nute bones  described  below  ;  the  one  at  the  left  resembles 
a  hammer  ;  the  middle  one,  an  anvil ;  and  the  one  at  the 
right,  a  stirrup.  A  tube  extends  from  the  middle  ear  to 
the  throat.  At  the  right  of  the  middle  ear  is  the  inner 
ear,  at  I ;  it  is  most  complicated  in  its  structure,  and  is 
separated  from  the  middle  ear  by  a  thin  membrane 
against  which  the  stirrup  bone  rests. 

The  tympanic  membrane  is  often  diseased  from  in- 
flammation of  the  middle  ear.  Not  infrequently  it  has 
minute  openings  through  it,  while  sometimes  it  is  nearly 
all  destroyed.  It  is  the  function  of  the  tympanic  mem- 
brane to  catch  the  sounds  entering  the  external  ear. 
As  they  strike  the  membrane,  they  cause  it  to  vibrate, 
and  these  excite  a  corresponding  vibration  in  the  parts 
beyond. 

Bones  of  the  Middle  Ear.  In  the  middle  ear  are  three 
bones,  so  minute  that  all  together  they  weigh  but  a  few 
grains.  Yet  they 
give  attachment  to 
minute  muscles, 
have  movable  joints, 
and  perform  most 
important  work. 
They  very  much  re- 
semble three  well 
known  articles; 
hence  they  are  called 
the  malleus,  or  ham- 
mer ;  the  incus,  or  anvil ;  and  the  stapes,  or  stirrup.  The 
tympanic  membrane  is  attached  to  the  handle  of  the 
hammer ;  the  hammer,  to  the  anvil ;  and  the  anvil,  to 


FIG.  112.  The  three  bones  of  the  middle 
ear  :  H,  the  hammer,  or  malleus;  A,  the  an- 
vil, or  incus;  s,  the  stirrup,  or  stapes. 


THE   SENSE  OF  HEARING.  319 

the  stirrup  ;  thus  a  chain  of  bones  is  established  from 
the  tympanic  membrane  across  the  cavity  of  the  middle 
ear.  The  outer  end  of  this  bony  chain  is  attached  to  a 
membrane,  and  so  is  the  inner  end.  Beneath  the  inner 
membrane,  just  opposite  the  stirrup,  in  the  inner  ear,  is 


FIG.  113.  The  middle  and  inner  ears,  from  a  different  view  and. on  a 
larger  scale  than  Fig.  111.  A,  the  auditory  canal  of  the  outer  ear;  T,  the 
tympanic  membrane;  Mm,  the  middle  ear;  E,  the  Eustachian  tube; 
I  i,  the  inner  ear,  surrounded  by  bone;  s,  the  stapes;  I,  the  incus ;  M,  the 
malleus. 

a  fluid.  Therefore  the  vibrations  of  the  air  at  last'come 
to  affect  this  fluid  in  the  inner  ear.  A  reference  to 
Fig.  113  will  make  this  clear  ;  the  sound  enters  the 
external  ear  and  passes  down  the  auditory  canal,  A,  and 
strikes  against  the  tympanic  membrane,  T,  throwing 
it  into  vibrations  ;  these  vibrations  are  communicated  to 
the  handle  of  the  hammer,  M  ;  thence  to  the  anvil,  I ; 
thence  to  the  stirrup,  S  ;  and  thence  to  the  membrane  to 
which  the  stirrup  is  attached.  As  this  membrane  vi- 
brates it  throws  a  fluid  beyond  it  into  corresponding 
vibrations ;  and  these  so  affect  the  endings  of  the  audi- 
tory nerve  that  we  have  at  last  the  sensation  of  hearing. 


320  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

The  Eustachian  Tube.  The  middle  ear  is  not  a  closed 
cavity.  It  communicates  with  the  pharynx  by  means  of 
a  passage,  called  the  Eustachian  tube.  The  tube  and 
the  middle  ear  are  lined  with  a  mucous  membrane,  and 
the  former  opens  into  the  upper  part  and  on  the  side 
of  the  pharynx  directly  behind  the  opening  of  the  lower 
part  of  each  nasal  cavity.  The  object  of  this  tube 
is  to  keep  the  air  in  the  middle  ear  of  the  same 
density  as  that  outside  the  ear.  In  the  healthy  ear, 
therefore,  the  air  in  the  external  ear  and  that  in  the 
middle  ear  are  of  the  same  density,  with  only  a  thin  vi- 
brating membrane  between. 

The  Eustachian  tube  is  ordinarily  closed,  opening  only 
during  the  act  of  swallowing,  and  thus  allowing  the 
passage  of  air  to  the  middle  ear.  It  is  often  closed,  as 
a  result  of  chronic  catarrhal  affections,  so  that  it  does 
not  open  for  the  passage  of  air  through  it ;  this  condi- 
tion is  one  of  the  causes  of  deafness;  but  it  is  often 
possible  to  relieve  such  cases  by  the  use  of  instruments 
with  which  air  may  be  forced  through  the  tube  into  the 
middle  ear. 

The  Internal  Ear.  The  internal  ear  is  the  most  essen- 
tial part  of  the  organ  of  hearing,  for  it  contains  the 
terminal  fibers  of  the  auditory  nerve.  Its  parts  are 
deeply  seated  in  the  bones  of  the  skull  and  are  most 
intricate  and  complicated  in  structure. 

The  Sense  of  Equilibrium.  A  certain  portion  of  the 
inner  ^ar  consists  of  three  bony  tubes,  called  the  semi- 
circular canal.  When  these  canals  are  injured  in  the 
lower  animals  it  is  found  that  the  animal  rolls  its  head 
from  side  to  side,  up  and  down,  while  all  its  movements 
are  irregular.  It  appears  to  be  unable  to  direct  its 


THE   SENSE   OF   HEARING.  321 

movements ;  for  a  bird  thus  injured  will  experience  great 
difficulty  in  walking  to  the  food  placed  near,  and  in  pick- 
ing it  up.  The  animal  sees  well  and  appears  to  hear  well, 
but  it  reels  and  falls,  acting  as  if  it  were  dizzy.  From 
these  observations  and  from  some  made  on  man,  it  is 
believed  that  the  semi-circular  canals  contain  nerves 
which  enable  the  body  to  maintain  its  proper  poise,  or 
balance,  a  condition  just  opposite  that  of  being  dizzy. 
It  is  probable  that  this  function  residing  in  the  middle 
ear  is  connected  with  the  similar  function  of  the 
cerebellum. 

Care  of  the  Ears.  One  of  the  most  common  causes 
of  injury  to  the  ears  is  the  introduction  of  pins,  or  other 
hard  substances,  into  the  auditory  canal  for  removing 
the  earwax.  The  ordinary  washing  and  wiping  with  a 
towel  is  sufficient  to  insure  perfect  cleanliness,  while 
the  constant  introduction  of  hard  substances  is  likely 
to  set  up  an  irritation  which  may  eventually  impair  the 
hearing.  Currents  of  cold  air  blowing  into  the  ears 
may  do  great  harm  by  chilling  the  sensitive  tympanic 
membrane.  The  contact  of  cold  water  with  this  mem- 
brane often  causes  the  earache,  or  acute  inflammation 
of  the  middle  ear ;  for  this  reason  it  is  always  better 
to  place  pieces  of  cotton  in  the  ears  before  diving,  or 
bathing  in  the  surf. 

Foreign  bodies  in  the  ear  are  not  always  easily  re- 
moved. Insects  are  best  removed  by  having  warm  sweet 
oil  gently  poured  into  the  auditory  canal ;  this  will  either 
drive,  the  insect  out  or  kill  it;  probably  both.  Physi- 
cians should  always  be  consulted  for  the  removal  of 
other  foreign  bodies.  The  firing  of  a  cannon  has  caused 
deafness  to  those  standing  near.  Boxing  the  ears  is 

21 


322  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF  HEALTH. 

especially  dangerous  ;  the  sudden  forcing  the  air  into  the 
ear  may  rupture  the  tympanic  membrane  and  seriously 
impair  the  hearing. 

The  value  of  acute  hearing  to  the  child  cannot  be  over- 
estimated ;  it  bears  a  more  important  relation  to  the 
intellectual  development  than  the  eye  itself.  This  is 
proved  by  the  fact  that  children  born  blind  often  ex- 
hibit remarkable  faculties  of  the  mind ;  while  generally 
the  mental  deficiencies  of  those  born  without  hearing  are 
very  marked.  The  hearing  can  be  greatly  developed  by 
training.  The  acute  ear  of  the  uneducated  Indian  will 
detect  the  approach  of  moving  bodies  long  before  the 
untrained  ear  is  made  aware  of  their  approach  ;  and  the 
skilled  musician  can  detect  the  most  delicate  variation 
from  the  proper  sound  of  a  note. 

QUESTIONS. 

4.  Name  the  parts  composing  the  organ  of  hearing. 

2.  Describe  the  auditory  canal. 

3.  Why  is  the  middle  ear  called  the  drum  of  the  ear? 

4.  Where  is  the  tympanic  membrane  located? 

5.  Give  the  names  of  the  bones  of  the  middle  ear. 

6.  Describe   the   effects   produced  by  sound  entering  the  ex. 
ternal  ear. 

7.  What  is  the  object  of  the  Eustachian  tube? 

8.  Its  closure  often  causes  what  ? 

9.  Where  is  the  internal  ear  situated? 

10.   What  is  the  function  of  the  semicircular  canals? 


THE  SENSE  OF  TOUCH.  323 


CHAPTER  XXXIT. 

THE  SENSES  OF  TOUCH :  TEMPERATURE : 
WEIGHT:  PRESSURE:  COMMON  SEN- 
SATION: AND  PAIN. 

The  Sense  of  Touch.  A  reference  to  the  chapter  on 
the  skin  will  recall  the  fact  that  in  some  of  the  papillae 
of  the  skin  are  nerve  fibers ;  in  Fig.  92,  at  4,  is  such  a 
nerve  termination.  These  papillae  are  called  the  touch 
corpuscles,  as  they  are  especially  concerned  in  the  sense 
of  touch.  It  must  be  remembered,  as  shown  in  Fig.  92, 
that  there  is  only  a  thin  layer  of  cells  between  these 
corpuscles  and  the  surface  of  the  skin  ;  therefore  it  is 
readily  understood  that  any  impression  made  on  the 
outer  surface  of  the  skin  is  almost  in  direct  contact 
with  one  of  these  touch  corpuscles. 

The  touch  corpuscles  are  very  numerous  on  the  palms 
of  the  hands  and  palmar  surfaces  of  the  fingers,  while 
they  are  the  least  numerous  on  the  back.  The  sense  of 
touch  seems  most  acute  on  the  tip  of  the  tongue.  It  is 
the  least  complicated  of  any  of  the  senses  and  is  the  one 
first  developed  in  the  child.  It  is  in  constant  use,  bring- 
ing us  into  the  closest  relations  with  external  objects. 
By  its  use,  we  learn  the  size,  figure,  solidity,  and  smooth- 
ness, as  well  as  many  other  qualities  of  bodies. 

The  sense  of  touch  is  capable  of  being  highly  devel- 
oped, especially  if  great  reliance  has  to  be  placed  upon 


324  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

it ;  it  is  developed  to  the  greatest  degree  in  the  blind. 
They  soon  learn  to  read  by  passing  the  fingers  over 
raised  letters ;  to  recognize  persons  by  feeling  their 
faces ;  to  distinguish  plants  by  touching  them  ;  and  to 
become  expert  musicians.  The  blind  sculptor  Gonelli 
is  said  to  have  modeled  beautifully,  relying  on  the  sense 
of  touch  alone. 

This  sense  is  very  accurate,  and  less  liable  to  deceive 
than  the  other  senses.  The  eye  and  ear  often  convey 
to  us  vague  and  many  times  wrong  impressions ;  but  the 
touch  at  once  corrects  these  and  gives  us  the  true  condi- 
tion. This  is  well  illustrated  in  cases  where  persons  who 
were  born  blind  have  had  their  sight  restored  by  some 
surgical  operation.  They  could  not  tell  a  globe  from  a 
round  card,  nor  a  cube  from  a  square,  nor  a  disk  from 
a  circle  ;  but  as  soon  as  the  hands  were  placed  on  these 
oodies  the  errors  were  immediately  discovered. 

Degrees  of  Acuteness  of  Touch.  Those  parts  are  most 
sensitive  to  touch  which  have  the  greatest  number  of 
touch  corpuscles.  The  degrees  of  delicacy  are  measured 
by  means  of  a  pair  of  compasses  with  blunted  points. 
The  two  points  are  touched  at  the  same  moment  to  the 
skin,  while  the  eyes  are  closed;  they  are  gradually 
brought  nearer  together  until  both  points  are  felt  as 
one,  when  their  distance  apart  is  noted.  The  same 
experiment  can  be  performed,  though  less  accurately, 
with  pins.  Two  pins  are  held  with  their  points  at  least 
an  inch  apart,  and  then  pressed  lightly  against  the 
skin  on  the  back  of  the  wrist  of  another  person.  Repeat 
the  experiment,  bringing  the  points  nearer  together  each 
time.  Soon  the  person  will  declare  that  he  feels  but 
one  point  instead  of  two.  The  distance  between  the 


THE  SENSES  OF  WEIGHT  AND  PRESSURE.       325 

points  will  give  the  degree  of  acuteness  of  touch  for 
that  part  of  the  body.  In  this  way  it  has  been  proved 
that  the  shortest  distance  at  which  the  two  points  of  a 
compass  can  be  distinguished  as  double  is  as  follows : 
on  the  tip  of  the  tongue  ^  of  an  inch ;  on  the  inside 
of  the  tips  of  the  fingers  J  of  an  inch ;  on  the  palm  of 
the  hand  about  J  of  an  inch ;  on  the  cheek  about  f  of  an 
inch  ;  and  on  the  back  over  2  inches. 

Touch  in  the  Lower  Animals.  All  forms  of  animal 
life  appear  to  have  this  sense  developed  to  a  greater  or 
less  degree.  In  the  cat  there  are  special  organs  endowed 
with  unusual  sensitiveness  ;  these  are  called  the  whiskers. 
The  long  hair  of  the  cat  and  other  animals  renders  the 
general  surface  of  the  skin  little  adapted  for  the  sense 
of  touch ;  hence,  they  have  been  provided  with  a  few 
long  hairs,  called  feelers,  which  are  in  close  connection 
with  nerve  fibers  in  the  skin.  The  touch  is  extreme!;; 
sensitive  in  the  trunk  of  the  elephant;  while  many 
small  insects  have  special  organs,  or  feelers,  for  this 
sense. 

The  Sense  of  Temperature.  The  temperature  sense 
makes  us  acquainted  with  all  the  variations  in  the 
temperature  of  the  skin.  The  skin  has  a  proper  tem- 
perature of  its  own  and  when  this  is  maintained  we  are 
unconscious  of  either  heat  or  cold ;  but  if  any  part  of 
the  skin  rises  above  its  proper  temperature  we  feel 
warm,  and  if  it  falls  below  it  we  feel  cold.  When  a 
body  is  applied  to  the  skin  which  takes  heat  from  it  a 
sensation  of  cold  is  produced ;  while  if  a  body  imparts 
heat,  warmth  is  experienced.  The  sense  of  temperature 
appears  to  be  principally  in  the  skin,  the  mouth,  the 
throat,  and  at  the  entrance  of  the  nose.  The  apprecia- 


326  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF  HEALTH. 

tion  of  temperature  varies  for  the  different  parts  of  the 
body,  as  for  instance,  hot  applications  which  would  be 
intolerable  on  the  face  can  be  borne  when  applied  to  the 
scalp. 

The  sensations  of  heat  and  cold  are  sometimes  strangely 
confused.  If  the  hand  be  dipped  in  very  cold  water,  and 
then  dipped  again  in  water  a  number  of  degrees  warmer, 
there  is  first  a  feeling  of  warmth  and  then  of  cold;  if 
one  finger  be  dipped  in  warm  water,  the  feeling  of 
warmth  will  not  be  nearly  so  great  as  it  would  if  the 
whole  hand  were  immersed ;  if  two  equal  weights  be 
lifted  in  the  hands,  one  warm  and  the  other  cold,  the 
latter  will  be  declared  to  be  heavier.  • 

The  Sense  of  Weight.  This  is  also  known  as  the 
muscular  sense.  It  informs  us  of  the  amount  of  mus- 
cular contraction  necessary  to  lift  a  body ;  while  it  de- 
pends partly  on  the  sense  of  pressure  and  partly  on 
common  sensibility.  It  is,  therefore,  about  midway  be- 
tween a  special  sense  and  the  common  sensation  of  the 
body.  By  placing  weights  in  each  hand  and  then  rais- 
ing and  lowering  the  hands,  one  becomes  conscious  of 
a  certain  amount  of  resistance.  The  muscular  exertion 
required  to  lift  the  body  gives  us  the  sense  of  weight ; 
and  by  practice  it  is  possible  to  distinguish  very  slight 
differences  in  the  weights  of  bodies,  even  of  those  as  light 
as  coins. 

The  Sense  of  Pressure.  The  sense  of  pressure  enables 
us  to  judge  of  the  amount  of  weight  or  pressure,  on 
different  parts  of  the  skin.  To  illustrate  this,  the  hand, 
or  the  part  being  tested,  must  rest  on  the  table,  or  must 
be  supported  in  some  way.  The  various  parts  of  the 
body  differ  exceedingly  as  to  the  amount  of  weight  re- 


PAIN.  327 

quired  to  make  itself  felt:  the  most  acute  portion  is 
the  forehead  ;  next,  the  temples ;  then  the  back  of  the 
head ;  and  lastly,  the  forearm. 

Common  Sensation.  The  term  "  common  sensation  " 
refers  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  which  have  sensitive 
nerves  that  are  capable  of  causing  pleasant  or  unpleasant 
sensations.  These  cannot  be  compared  to  the  special 
senses  already  described ;  in  fact,  they  are  difficult  to 
describe  at  all.  We  have  many  of  these  common  sen- 
sations, each  one  of  a  character  peculiarly  its  own ;  thus 
we  speak  of  the  sensations  of  hunger,  of  thirst,  of  pain, 
of  fright,  of  fatigue,  of  illness,  and  of  health. 

Pain.  If  any  of  the  nerves  of  sensation  be  disturbed 
it  produces  a  sensation  called  pain.  If  a  sensitive  nerve 
be  cut  in  any  part  of  its  course  it  produces  pain  which  is 
always  referred  to  the  place  where  the  nerve  ends,  rather 
than  to  the  point  injured.  Thus,  touching  the  ulnar 
nerve,  the  u  crazy  bone  "  at  the  elbow,  causes  a  pain  in 
the  little  finger  and  part  of  the  adjoining  finger ;  these 
are  the  parts  in  which  the  nerve  terminates.  After 
amputation  of  limbs,  it  often  occurs  that  one  of  the 
severed  nerves  gives  rise  to  pain ;  in  this  case  the 
afflicted  person  says  he  feels  the  pain  in  the  ampu- 
tated fingers  or  toes.  It  is  not  known  what  causes 
the  varieties  of  pain ;  for  some  are  sharp  and  cutting, 
while  others  are  dull  and  throbbing. 

Dreadful  as  it  is,  still  pain  is  a  valuable  bodyguard. 
It  tells  of  the  approach  of  danger,  and  points  to  disease 
when  it  is  present.  It  may  be  stated  that  any  so-called 
stimulus  will  cause  pain  if  applied  beyond  the  normal 
limit  and  to  an  excessive  degree.  Light  is  the  stimulus 
for  vision ;  yet  strong  light,  as  the  glare  of  the  sun,  is 


328  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF  HEALTH. 

at  once  painful.  Sounds  falling  on  the  ear  may  awake 
the  most  pleasant  memories  ;  yet  loud  and  long  con- 
tinued sounds  soon  become  positively  painful.  The 
ordinary  contraction  of  a  muscle  is  free  from  pain ;  yet 
the  rapid  and  violent  muscular  contractions  in  spasms 
are  intensely  painful. 

The  nerves  of  sensation  are  the  great  protectors  of 
the  body.  Without  them  and  their  accompanying  pain 
we  should  cut,  burn,  bruise,  and  otherwise  disfigure  the 
body  in  many  ways  as  we  go  about  our  daily  work. 
Pain  keeps  us  from  pursuing  many  harmful  courses, 
and  thus  aids  greatly  in  protecting  the  body.  It  is  an. 
unaccountable  fact  that  some  persons  suffer  more  pain 
than  .others  who  have  the  same  diseases  or  injuries ;  so 
it  follows  that  the  severity  of  the  suffering  does  not  al- 
ways indicate  a  corresponding  intensity  of  the  disease 
or  injury. 

Animals  appear  to  suffer  pain,  especially  those  ani- 
mals which  are  most  noted  for  their  intelligence,  as  the 
dog  arid  the  horse.  The  finer  bred  the  animal,  so  much 
the  more  susceptible  is  it  to  pain.  The  thoroughbred 
and  blooded  horse  appears  to  suffer  great  pain,  while  the 
ordinary  work-horse  may  be  perfectly  indifferent.  But 
those  creatures  low  in  the  scale  of  animal  life  do  not  ex- 
hibit evidence  that  they  suffer  much  pain. 


ADDITIONAL   TESTIMONY.  329 


CHAPTER    XXXIII. 

ADDITIONAL    TESTIMONY    AGAINST 
ALCOHOL    AND    TOBACCO. 

From  the  Medical  Profession.  In  Canada  the  medical 
profession  is  awake  to  the  growing  evils  of  intemper- 
ance. In  the  city  of  Montreal,  twenty-five  professors  in 
medical  colleges,  and  over  seventy  physicians  of  the  city, 
united  in  the  following  declaration  against  alcohol :  — , 

u  We,  the  undersigned  members  of  the  medical  profession  in 
Montreal,  are  of  opinion  — 

"  1.  That  a  large  proportion  of  human  misery,  poverty,  dis- 
ease, and  crime  is  produced  by  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  as 
a  beverage. 

"  2.  That  total  abstinence  from  intoxicating  liquor,],  whether 
fermented  or  distilled,  is  consistent  with,  and  conducive  to,  the 
highest  degree  of  physical  and  mental  health  and  vigor. 

"  3.  That  abstinence  from  intoxicating  liquors  would  greatly 
promote  the  health,  morality,  and  happiness  of  the  people." 

In  the  cities  of  New  York  and  Brooklyn,  many  of  the 
most  prominent  and  influential  members  of  the  medical 
profession  unhesitatingly  declare  against  the  use  of  alco- 
holic beverages.  Notice  the  strong  language  in  the  fol- 
lowing declaration :  — 


330  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

"1.  In  view  of  the  alarming  prevalence  and  ill  effects  of  in- 
temperance, with  which  none  are  so  familiar  as  members  of 
the  medical  profession,  and  which  have  called  forth  from  emi- 
nent English  physicians  the  voice  of  warning  to  the  people  of 
Great  Britain  concerning  the  use  of  alcoholic  beverages,  we, 
the  undersigned  members  of  the  medical  profession  of  New 
York  and  vicinity,  unite  in  the  declaration  that  we  believe 
alcohol  should  be  classed  with  other  powerful  drugs ;  that  when 
prescribed  medicinally  it  should  be  with  conscientious  caution 
and  a  sense  of  grave  responsibility. 

"  2.  We  are  of  opinion  that  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquor  as  a 
beverage  is  productive  of  a  large  amount  of  physical  disease ; 
that  it  entails  diseased  appetites  upon  offspring ;  and  that  it  is 
the  cause  of  a  large  percentage  of  the  crime  and  pauperism  of 
our  cities  and  country. 

"3.  "We  would  welcome  any  judicious  and  effective  legislation, 
State  and  national,  which  should  seek  to  confine  the  traffic  in 
alcohol  to  the  legitimate  purposes  of  medical  and  other  sciences, 
art,  and  mechanism." 

This  paper  was  signed  by  over  one  hundred  of  the 
leading  physicians  of  New  York  and  Brooklyn.  Among 
the  names  we  find  many  that  are  familiar  to  the  medical 
profession  of  the  whole  world,  and  some  that  are  known 
wherever  the  subject  of  public  health  is  discussed.  A 
large  number  of  the  signers  is  composed  of  men  who 
have  taught  five  years  in  medical  colleges,  practised  in 
large  hospitals,  and  been  actively  engaged  as  members 
of  Boards  of  Charity  and  Public  Health  Associations.  As 
teachers  they  have  become  acquainted  with  the  scientific 
side  of  the  question,  and  as  practitioners  they  have  be- 
come familiar  with  the  practical  results  of  the  use  of 
strong  drink.  No  men  are  better  qualified  to  judge  of 
the  evils  of  strong  drink  than  those  of  the  medical  pro- 


ADDITIONAL   TESTIMONY.  331 

fession,  and  the  declarations  of  these  men  is  against  the 
use  of  alcoholic  liquors  as  a  beverage. 

Alcohol  is  a  Poison.  Dr.  E.  W.  Lambert,  the  medical 
director  of  the  Equitable  Life  Insurance  Company, 
writes  to  a  prominent  member  of  the  United  States 
Senate  as  follows  :  — 

"  To  speak  chemically,  alcohol  is  a  concentrated  hydrocarbon, 
and  needs  a  great  deal  of  physical  labor  to  dispose  of  it  in  the 
animal  economy.  I  have  noticed  that  men  who  are  given  to 
the  daily  use  of  alcohol  degenerate  faster  than  those  who  ab- 
stain from  its  use.  They  are  more  liable  not  only  to  chronic 
degenerations  (such  as  fatty  livers,  fatty  kidneys,  and  the  like), 
but  they  are  also  more  liable  to  be  attacked  by  acute  diseases ; 
and  acute  diseases  are  much  more  likely  to  prove  fatal  to  the 
users  of  alcohol  than  to  those  who  do  not  use  it. 

"Take  for  illustration  a  young  friend  of  mine,  who  com- 
menced the  use  of  alcohol  about  the  age  of  twenty-one  years. 
He  died  after  two  days'  illness.  When  I  came  to  examine  his 
body  after  his  death,  I  found  that  all  his  internal  organs  be- 
longed to  a  man  of  the  age  of  seventy  years,  and  not  to  a  man 
of  forty,  the  age  at  which  he  died.  I  have  noticed  that  steady 
users  of  alcohol  are  very  much  more  apt  to  die  between  the 
ages  of  forty  and  fifty  years  of  some  acute  disease  than  those 
who  do  not  use  it  as  a  beverage. 

"I  have  said  nothing  as  yet  concerning  the  danger  which 
every  one  undergoes  who  uses  alcohol  regularly.  ...  If  he 
once  gets  the  appetite,  there  is  nothing  on  the  earth,  or  above 
it,  or  under  it,  that  he  will  not  do  in  order  to  gratify  this  mor- 
bid appetite.  He  will  lie  or  steal,  or  see  his  family  go  to  ruin 
with  perfect  equanimity,  provided  he  can  satisfy  this  inordinate 
craving  for  alcohol." 

Dr.  Dods,  of  England,  said  before  a  committee  of  the 
House  of  Commons  :  — 


332  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 

"  Writers  on  Medical  Jurisprudence  rank  alcohol  among 
narcotico-acrid  poisons,  of  which  small  quantities,  if  repeated, 
always  prove  more  or  less  injurious,  and  agree  that  the  mor- 
bid appearances  seen  after  death  occasioned  by  ardent  spirits 
exactly  agrees  with  those  that  result  from  poisoning  caused  by 
any  other  substance  of  the  same  class." 

Medical  men  are  familiar  with  the  physiologies  of  the 
renowned  Dr.  W.  B.  Carpenter,  of  London.  His  works 
on  mental  physiology  have  made  him  rank  high  as  a 
philosopher;  while  his  exhaustive  treatises  on  micros- 
copy illustrate  how  closely  he  observes  even  the  minutest 
things.  Dr.  Carpenter  concludes  his  observations  on  the 
subject  of  alcohol  as  follows  :  — 

"The  introduction  of  alcohol  into  healthy  blood  can  do 
nothing  but  mischief ;  no  one  who  is  familiar  with  the  action 
of  poisons  upon  the  living  animal  body,  and  has  made  the 
nature  of  that  action  a  special  study,  has  the  smallest  hesitation 
in  saying  that  alcohol  is  a  poison ." 

Alcohol  is  of  no  Use.  Dr.  William  Pepper,  of  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  is  another  author  of  great 
prominence.  His  exhaustive  work  on  the  Practice  of 
Medicine  has  made  for  him  an  enduring  name  as  a 
profound  scholar  and  keen  observer.  He  testifies  as 
follows :  — 

"  One  of  the  worst  features  of  the  action  of  alcohol  in  a 
large  majority  of  young  persons  is  that,  though  taken  in  small 
amount,  and  even  in  the  form  of  light  wines  or  beer,  its  first 
agreeable  effect  is  followed  by  a  feeling  of  lassitude  and  depres- 
sion, readily  mistaken  for  debility,  and  suggesting  a  repetition 
of  the  stimulant.  But  these  unpleasant  feelings  are  the  direct 
result  of  the  presence  in  the  blood  and  tissues  of  poisonous  mat- 
ters, coining  from  the  imperfect  digestion  of  the  alcohol,  or  of 


ADDITIONAL   TESTIMONY.  333 

food  with  whose  complete  assimilation  the  dose  of  alcohol  has 
interfered.  The  habitual  use  of  alcoholic  beverages  by  healthy 
persons  is  highly  injurious,  and  involves  the  risk  of  develop- 
ing serious  disease.  I  am,  indeed,  satisfied  that  all  persons  in 
good  health  are  better  without  alcohol,  in  any  form  or  in  any 
amount,  as  a  beverage." 

From  the  hundreds  of  opinions  of  individual  medical 
men  we  select  the  following  as  illustrating  the  fact  that 
scholarship  and  experience  alike  condemn  the  use  of 
strong  drink.  Dr.  N.  S.  Davis,  of  Chicago,  takes  the 
most  advanced  ground,  going  so  far  as  to  state  that 
alcohol  is  not  even  desirable  as  a  medicine.  Dr.  Davis 
is  not  only  most  skilled  in  his  profession,  but  is  also  a 
man  of  great  general  learning.  He  has  been  honored 
with  the  highest  gifts  in  the  power  of  the  profession  to 
bestow  upon  him,  while  his  opinion  is  acknowledged  by 
all  to  be  of  the  greatest  weight.  To  what  does  this  emi- 
nent scholar  testify  ?  — 

•'I  have  been  constantly  engaged  in  the  practice  of  medi- 
cine a  little  more  than  fifty  years,  embracing  both  private  and 
public  hospital  practice,  and  have  demonstrated  by  the  last 
forty  years  of  actual  experience  that  no  form  of  alcoholic 
drink,  either  fermented  or  distilled,  is  necessary  or  desirable 
for  internal  use  in  either  health  or  in  any  of  the  varied  forms 
of  disease  ;  but  that  health  can  be  better  preserved  and  disease 
be  more  successfully  treated  without  any  use  of  such  drinks. 
And  while  it  is  true  that  during  the  last  thirty  years  I  have 
not  prescribed  for  internal  use  the  aggregate  amount  of  one 
quart  of  any  kind  of  fermented  or  distilled  drinks,  either  in 
private  or  hospital  practice,  yet  I  have  continued  to  have  abun- 
dant opportunities  for  observing  the  effects  of  these  agents  as 
given  by  others  with  whom  I  have  been  in  council ;  and  simple 


334  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

truth  compels  me  to  say  that  I  have  never  yet  seen  a  case  in 
which  the  use  of  alcoholic  drinks  either  increased  the  force  of 
the  heart's  action  or  strengthened  the  patient  beyond  the  first 
thirty  minutes  after  it  was  swallowed." 

Alcohol  Shortens  Life,  The  President  of  the  Conneo 
ticut  Mutual  Life  Insurance  Company  bas  given  the 
following  testimony :  — 

"Among  the  persons  selected  with  care  for  physical  sound- 
ness and  sobriety,  and  who  are,  as  a  rule,  respectable  and 
useful  members  of  society,  the  death-rate  is  more  profoundly 
affected  by  the  use  of  intoxicating  drinks  than  from  any  other 
one  cause,  apart  from  hereditary. 

"I  protest  against  the  notion  so  prevalent  and  so  industri- 
ously urged  that  beer  is  harmless,  and  a  desirable  substitute 
for  the  more  concentrated  liquors.  Its  use  is  an  evil  only 
less  than  the  use  of  whiskey,  if  less  on  the  whole,  and  its  effect 
is  only  longer  delayed ;  its  incidents  not  so  repulsive,  but  de- 
structive in  the  end.  In  one  of  our  largest  cities,  containing  a 
great  population  of  beer  drinkers,  I  had  occasion  to  note  the 
deaths  among  a  large  group  of  persons  whose  habits,  in  their 
own  eyes  and  in  those  of  their  friends  and  physicians,  were 
temperate,  but  they  were  habitual  users  of  beer.  When  the 
observation  began  they  were,  upon  the  average,  something 
under  middle  age,  and  they  were,  of  course,  selected  lives. 
For  two  or  three  years  there  was  nothing  very  remarkable  to 
be  noted  among  this  group.  Presently  death  began  to  strike 
it ;  and.  until  it  had  dwindled  to  a  fraction  of  its  original  pro- 
portions, the  mortality  in  it  was  astounding  in  extent,  and  still 
more  remarkable  in  the  manifest  identity  of  cause  and  mode. 
There  was  no  mistaking  it;  the  history  was  almost  invari- 
able, —  robust,  apparent  health,  full  muscles,  a  fair  outside, 
increasing  weight,  florid  faces ;  then  a  touch  of  cold,  or  a  sniff 
of  malaria,  and  instantly  some  acute  disease,  with  almost  in- 


ADDITIONAL   TESTIMONY.  335 

variably  typhoid  symptoms,  was  in  violent  action,  and  ten  days 
or  less  ended  it.  It  was  as  if  the  system  had  been  kept  fair 
outside,  while  within  it  was  eaten  to  a  shell ;  and  at  the  first 
touch  of  disease  there  was  utter  collapse,  —  every  fiber  was 
poisoned  and  weak.  And  this,  in  its  main  features,  varying, 
of  course,  in  degree,  has  been  my  observation  of  beer  drinking 
everywhere.  It  is  peculiarly  deceptive  at  first ;  it  is  thoroughly 
destructive  at  the  last." 

Henry  Ward  Beecher  said  :  —    • 

"  Every  year  I  live  increases  my  conviction  that  the  use  of 
intoxicating  drinks  is  a  greater  destroying  force  to  life  and  vir- 
tue than  all  other  physical  evils  combined." 

Alcohol  causes  Pauperism.  We  little  realize  the  great 
amount  of  pauperism  that  exists  in  our  own  country. 
Even  to  a  less  degree  do  we  realize  that  this  great 
burden  of  society  is  so  largely  caused  by  strong  drink 
We  have  some  positive  testimony  on  this  point.  The 
chairman  of  the  Board  of  Health  of  the  State  of  Massa- 
chusetts sent  out  the  following  two  inquiries  to  the  town 
and  city  authorities  of  the  State :  — 

"  1.  What  proportion  of  the  inmates  of  your  almshouses 
are  there  in  consequence  of  the  deleterious  use  of  intoxicat- 
ing liquors? 

"  2.  What  proportion  of  the  children  are  there  in  conse- 
quence of  the  drunkenness  of  parents  ? 

He  received  two  hundred  and  eighty-two  replies. 
Among  these  is  the  following  from  the  superintendent 
of  Deer  Island  almshouse  and  hospital :  "  I  would  an 
swer  the  above  by  saying,  To  the  best  of  my  knowledge, 
ninety  per  cent,  —  to  both  questions." 


336  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF  HEALTH. 

The  authorities  of  the  city  of  Springfield  reported: 
"  We  have  fed  8,052  tramps.  Seldom  found  one  not 
reduced  to  that  condition  by  intemperance." 

In  the  county  of  Suffolk,  mainly  the  city  of  Boston, 
eighty  per  cent  of  the  pauperism  was  caused  by  intem- 
perance. Yet  we  must  remember  that  the  excellency 
of  the  government,  and  the  superiority  of  the  schools  of 
Massachusetts,  should  make  pauperism  more  rare  than 
in  less  favored  States.  But  even  here  the  conclusion  is 
forced  upon  us  that  a  very  large  per  cent  of  all  cases  of 
pauperism  is  attributable  to  the  vice  of  intemperance. 

Alcohol  causes  Crime.  The  United  States  Commissioner 
of  Education  says  that  "  from  eighty  to  ninety  per  cent 
of  our  criminals  connect  their  course  of  crime  with  in- 
temperance." 

The  Board  of  Public  Charities  of  Pennsylvania  said : 
"  The  most  prolific  source  of  disease,  poverty,  and  crime 
is  intemperance." 

,The  Citizens'  Association  of  Pennsylvania  states  that 
"  it  will  not  be  doubted  that  two  thirds  of  the  pauperism 
and  crime  are  justly  attributed  to  intemperance." 

The  inspectors  of  Massachusetts  State  Prison  testified 
that  in  1868  "  about  four  fifths  of  the  number  committed 
the  crimes  for  which  they  were  sentenced,  either  directly 
;>r  indirectly,  by  the  use  of  intoxicating  drinks." 

Judge  Noah  Davis,  Ex-Chief  Justice  of  New  York, 
says  that  "  ninety  per  cent  of  the  criminal  business  of 
the  courts  is  caused  by  the  liquor  traffic." 

The  Hon.  A.  G.  Fairbanks,  of  Manchester,  N.  H.,  tes- 
tifies that  he  is  familiar  with  over  one  thousand  cases 
of  persons  confined  in  jail  for  various  offences,  and  he 
gives  it  as  his  opinion  that,  "directly  and  indirectly,  it 


ADDITIONAL   TESTIMONY.  337 

is  safe  to  say  that  seventy-five  per  cent  of  all  crimes  can 
be  traced  to  the  use  of  alcohol  as  a  beverage." 
The  Hon.  William  J.  Mullen,  of  Pennsylvania,  says: 

"  Of  the  half  million  persons  who  had  been  committed 
to  the  county  prison  of  Philadelphia  during  the  last  twenty 
years,  there  had  been  about  five  hundred  for  murder;  seven 
hundred  for  attempts  to  murder;  over  forty  thousand  for  as- 
sault and  battery,  and  over  two  hundred  thousand  for  drunken 
ness.  In  nearly  every  case  of  murder  or  attempt  to  murder 
the  parties  were  intoxicated." 

An  evidence  of  the  bad  effects  of  alcoholic  liquors 
may  be  seen  in  the  fact  that  there  have  been  thirty-four 
murders  within  the  city  of  Philadelphia  during  one  year, 
each  one  of  which  was  traceable  to  intemperance,  and 
one  hundred  and  twenty-one  assaults  for  murder  pro- 
ceeding from  the  same  cause.  Of  over  thirty-eight  thou- 
sand arrests  in  Philadelphia  within  one  year,  seventy-five 
per  cent  were  caused  by  intemperance.  Of  18,305  per- 
sons committed  to  prison  within  the  year,  more  than 
two  thirds  were  the  consequence  of  intemperance. 

Judge  Allison  says  :  — 

"  In  our  criminal  courts  we  can  trace  four  fifths  of  the  crimes 
that  are  committed  to  the  influence  of  rum.  There  is  not  one 
case  in  twenty  where  a  man  is  tried  for  his  life  in  which  rum 
is  not  the  direct  or  indirect  cause  of  the  murder." 

Alcohol  causes  Wrong  Expenditure  of  Money.  In  speak- 
ing of  the  large  amount  of  money  expended  by  the  people 
of  England  year  by  year  for  intoxicating  drinks,  Cardinal 
Maiming  said :  — 

"  Can  there  be  a  more  complete  waste  ?  Expend  it  in  the 
drainage  of  England  and  the  culture  of  the  land,  and  there 


338  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

would  be  bread  for  the  hungry  mouths  of  the  people ;  in  the 
manufacture  of  cloth,  and  there  would  be  no  man  and  no  child 
without  a  coat  on  his  back ;  in  the  building  of  houses  fit  for 
human  habitation,  and  there  would  not  be  a  working  man  and 
his  family  without  a  roof  over  his  head.  Nay,  I  will  go  fur- 
ther. It  is  not  only  a  waste,  it  has  a  harvest.  It  is  a  great 
sowing  broadcast ;  and  what  springs  from  the  furrows  ?  Deaths, 
mortality  in  every  form,  disease  of  every  kind,  crime  of  every 
die,  madness  of  every  intensity,  misery  beyond  the  imagination 
to  conceive." 

Alcohol  neutralizes  Educational  Agencies.  The  New  York 
"  Tribune,"  in  an  editorial,  thus  speaks  of  the  liquor 
traffic :  — 

"  It  is  impossible  to  examine  any  subject  connected  with  the 
progress,  the  civilization,  the  physical  well-being,  the  religious 
condition  of  the  masses,  without  encountering  this  monstrous 
evil.  It  lies  at  the  center  of  all  political  and  social  mischief, 
it  paralyzes  energies  in  every  direction ;  it  neutralizes  educa- 
tional agencies  ;  it  silences  the  voice  of  religion  ;  it  baffles  penal 
reform ;  it  obstructs  political  reform.  .  .  .  There  is  needed 
something  of  that  sacred  fire  which  kindled  into  inextinguish- 
able heat  the  zeal  of  the  abolitionists,  and  which  compelled  the 
abandonment  of  human  slavery,  to  rouse  the  national  indigna- 
tion and  abhorrence  against  this  very  much  greater  evil." 

Alcohol  is  opposed  to  Good  Order.  In  giving  a  history 
of  the  army  of  the  Potomac,  the  writer  says  :  — 

"I  had  occasion  to  observe  a  remarkable  difference  in  the 
appearance  of  the  different  regiments.  In  some  cases  I  have 
found  their  men  dirty,  their  camp  disorderly,  and  their  whole 
appearance  shabby ;  in  others,  everything  neat  and  tidy,  or- 
derly, and  well-disposed.  On  inquiry,  I  have  found  that  the 
difference  was  owing  in  great  degree  to  the  course  the  com" 


ADDITIONAL  TESTIMONY.  339 

manding  officers  have  pursued  in  relation  to  the  use  of  intoxi- 
cating drinks.  Where,  as  in  a  great  many  instances,  the  colonel 
has  enacted  a  'prohibitory  law/  and  forbidden  the  admission 
of  liquor  into  the  camp,  I  find  everything  in  the  best  condition, 
the  best  health,  the  best  order.  I  was  much  gratified  to  find 
that  a  great  many  officers  and  soldiers  abstained  entirely, — 
not  because  they  were  compelled,  but  because  they  chose  to  do 
&o.  No  small  number  of  officers  in  high  command  are  teetota- 
lers. The  result  of  my  observations  in  regard  to  temperance 
in  this  great  army  at  Washington  is,  that  the  common-sense  of 
both  officers  and  men  is  strongly  in  favor  of  prohibition ;  and 
wherever  it  has  been  enforced  with  fidelity  and  vigilance,  it  has 
been  in  the  highest  degree  beneficial." 

The  Conclusion  of  the  Whole  Matter.  For  many  years  it 
was  the  privilege  of  the  author  to  be  associated  with  the 
eminent  Dr.  Alonzo  B.  Palmer,  who  for  so  many  years 
was  dean  of  the  medical  department  of  the  University  oi 
Michigan.  Dr.  Palmer  was  like  Dr.  Davis,  in  that  he 
was  a  man  of  wide  observation  and  scholarly  attain- 
ments. Shortly  before  his  death  he  wrote  as  follows : 

"If  chloroform  is  a  narcotic,  alcohol  is  a  narcotic;  if  chlo- 
roform is  an  anaesthetic,  alcohol  is  an  ansesthetic;  if  one  is 
essentially  a  depressing  agent,  so  is  the  other.  Their  strong 
resemblance  no  one  can  question.  The  chief  difference  is,  that 
the  alcoholic  narcosis  is  longer  continued,  and  its  secondary 
Affects  are  more  severe. 

"  There  is  a  connection,  often  marked,  in  the  use  of  the  dif- 
ferent narcotics.  The  alcohol  habit  tends  to  produce  the  opium 
habit,  and  the  reverse ;  one  may  be  substituted  for  the  other, 
and  the  two  are  often  indulged  together.  The  same  principle, 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  applies  to  the  widespread  tobacco 
habit,  and  to  the  less  prevalent  chloroform,  chloral,  and  hash- 
eesh habits.  The  indulgence  in  any  one  begets  a  tendency  to 


340  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

indulge  in  others.  The  habitual  use  of  any  of  them  produces 
a  constitutional  narcotic  state,  different  from  the  normal. 

"  We  thought,  and  we  may  sometimes  still  think,  it  makes  us 
witty.  We  know  from  observation  it  makes  men  silly. 

"  We  thought  it  brightened  the  intellect  and  might  make 
men  wiser.  We  find  that  in  the  long  run,  at  least,  it  dulls  the 
intellect  and  makes  men  foolish. 

"  Wine  has  been  called  the  '  milk  of  age,'  and  we  thought  it 
supported  advanced  life.  We  know  that  the  aged  live  longer 
and  retain  their  powers  better  without  its  use. 

"As  a  medicine,  or  prophylactic  measure,  we  thought  it 
protected  against  epidemic  diseases.  We  now  know  it  invites 
attacks. 

"  We  thought  it  prevented  and  even  cured -consumption.  We 
know  it  is  the  most  frequent  cause  of  at  least  one  form  of  that 
disease,  —  fibroid  phthisis. 

"  We  thought,  moderately  used,  it  was  good  for  many  things. 
Those  who  have  given  most  careful  attention  to  the  subject  be- 
lieve it  is  good  for  very  few  things. 

"/The  demonstrations  of  modern  science  have  shown  the 
truth  of  the  ancient  saying  of  the  Wise  Man .  "  Wine  is  a 
mocker,  strong  drink  is  raging,  and  whosoever  is  deceived 
thereby  is  not  wise." 

Cigarette  Smoking  often  does  Infinite  Harm,  We  clip 
the  following  from  one  of  the  leading  medical  journals 
of  the  world,  —  the  London  "  Lancet." 

"  Scarcely  less  injurious,  in  a  subtle  and  generally  un- 
recognized way,  than  the  habit  of  taking  alcoholic  drinks 
between  meals,  is  the  growing  practice  of  smoking  cigarettes 
incessantly.  The  truth  is  that,  perhaps  owing  to  the  way 
the  tobacco  leaf  is  shredded,  coupled  with  the  fact  that  it 
is  brought  into  more  direct  relation  with  the  mouth  and 
air-passages  than  when  it  is  smoked  in  a  pipe  or  cigar, 


ADDITIONAL   TESTIMONY.  341 

the  effects  produced  on  the  nervous  system  by  a  free  con- 
sumption of  cigarettes  are  more  marked  and  characteristic  than 
those  recognizable  after  recourse  to  other  modes  of  smoking. 
A  pulse-tracing,  made  after  the  subject  has  smoked  a  dozen 
cigarettes,  will,  as  a  rule,  be  flatter  and  more  indicative  of  de- 
pression than  one  taken  after  the  smoking  of  cigars.  It  is  no 
uncommon  practice  for  young  men  who  smoke  cigarettes  habi- 
tually to  consume  from  eight  to  twelve  in  an  hour,  and  to  keep 
this  up  for  four  or  five  hours  daily.  The  total  quantity  of 
tobacco  used  may  not  seem  large;  but,  beyond  question,  the 
volume  of  smoke  to  which  the  breath-organs  of  the  smoker  are 
exposed,  and  the  characteristics  of  that  smoke  as  regards  the 
proportion  of  nicotine  introduced  into  the  system,  combine  to 
place  the  organism  very  fully  under  the  influence  of  the  to- 
bacco. A  considerable  number  of  cases  have  been  brought 
under  our  notice  during  the  last  few  months  in  which  youths 
and  young  men  who  have  not  yet  completed  the  full  term  of 
physical  development  have  had  their  health  seriously  impaired 
by  the  practice  of  almost  incessantly  smoking  cigarettes.  It  is 
well  that  the  facts  should  be  known,  as  the  impression  evidently 
prevails  that  any  number  of  these  little  '  whiffs '  must  needs  be 
perfectly  innocuous,  whereas  they  often  do  infinite  harm." 

Tobacco  affects  Scholarship.  Some  careful  observations 
have  been  made  in  many  of  our  public  schools  and  col- 
leges concerning  the  effects  of  tobacco  on  scholarship. 
The  following  is  taken  from  a  recent  number  of  a  col- 
lege publication :  — 

"  Statistics  as  to  the  effects  of  tobacco-smoking  upon  students 
have  been  collected  at  Amherst  and  Yale  colleges.  The  non- 
smokers  at  Amherst  are  of  greater  weight  than  the  smokers ; 
they  are  superior  in  chest-girth  to  the  smokers,  and  their  lung- 
capacity  is  higher.  The  non-smokers  are  more  athletic  than 
the  smokers,  and  more  successful  in  athletic  sports.  The  non- 


342  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

smokers  at  Amherst,  as  at  Yale,  have  also  an  advantage  )ver 
the  smokers  in  mental  power  and  in  scholarship.  The  facts 
recently  collected  in  American  colleges  concerning  the  physio- 
logical and  physical  effects  of  the  tobacco-smoking  habit  are 
instructive  to  the  young  men  who  go  to  college,  and  also  to 
those  who  do  not." 

A  recent  writer  in  a  prominent  medical  journal  says 
he  has  been  studying  the  results  of  the  tobacco  habit  for 
over  a  year.  He  carefully  observed  its  effects  on  ninety- 
eight  persons,  aged  from  eighteen  to  twenty-eight.  Of 
these,  ninety  were  affected  with  impairment  of  the  senses 
of  taste,  smell,  and  hearing;  eighty-two  had  periodic 
headaches  traceable  to  this  habit;  fifty  per  cent  had 
irregular  action  of  the  heart;  eighty-nine  had  some 
trouble  with  the  stomach ;  twenty-two  were  badly  af- 
fected ;  eight  'could  not  always  retain  their  food ;  after 
smoking  during  the  day,  fifty -two  were  troubled  with 
vertigo ;  over  ffty  per  cent  complained  of  forgetfulness, 
a  decline  in  the  former  powers  of  the  memory.  The 
writer  says  these  'effects  are  u  traceable  to  the  use  of 
tobacco,"  because,  when  the  use  of  tobacco  had  been 
abandoned  for  a  time,  these  defects  seemed  to  remedy 
themselves,  unless  the  habit  was  of  too  long  standing. 
He  also  says  that  he  knows  hardly  a  single  healthy 
cigarette-smoker,  under  eighteen  years  of  age.  These 
smokers  are  flabby,  irresolute,  and  cannot  stand  hard 
study  or  play.  They  take  to  drinking  stimulants,  to 
counteract  these  effects,  early  in  life,  by  comparison. 

The  editor  of  the  "  Journal  of  Inebriety  "  says  tobacco 
has  such  a  powerful  effect  on  the  nervous  system  that 
"  it  is  not  at  all  strange  it  may  finally  bring  on  some 
form  of  insanity." 


EMERGENCIES.  343 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

EMERGENCIES. 

A  KNOWLEDGE  of  anatomy  and  physiology,  applied  in 
times  of  emergency,  may  often  save  a  life.  In  cases  of 
emergency  it  is  necessary  to  act  promptly  and  properly. 
The  first  great  requisite  is  presence  of  mind.  Strong 
self-control  is  required  to  maintain  a  quiet  and  com- 
posed bearing  when  all  the  surroundings  indicate  haste 
and  excitement.  One  can  work  rapidly,  with  quick 
movements,  and  yet  give  no  impression  of  unnecessary 
speed  or  agitation.  It  is  not  the  office  of  the  student 
to  take  the  place  of  the  physician  or  surgeon.  But  he 
should  be  able  to  do  two  things :  give  intelligent  tem- 
porary assistance,  and  send  for  a  doctor  immediately. 

In  all  cases  see  that  the  person  has  an  abundance 
of  fresh  air.  If  a  crowd  collects,  speak  as  one  having 
authority  and  order  it  back.  As  a  general  rule,  all 
sick  or  injured  persons  should  be  placed  on  their  backs 
with  the  lower  extremities  extended  and  the  arms  by 
the  side.  If  there  is  nausea  and  vomiting,  the  head 
should  be  turned  to.  one  side,  in  order  that  the  vomited 
matter  may  be  thrown  from  the  mouth  and  not  fall  back 
into  the  windpipe  and  cause  choking. 

There  is  a  popular  notion  that  the  first  thing  an 
injured  person  needs  is  a  stimulant.  To  act  upon  this 


344  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF  HEALTH. 

idea  is  both  incorrect  and  dangerous.  If  the  person  is 
thirsty,  water  is  the  best  liquid  which  can  be  supplied. 
If  he  is  bleeding,  stimulants  will  only  increase  the 
trouble.  If  he  is  faint,  lowering  the  head  even  below 
the  level  of  the  body  will  restore  consciousness.  Some 
of  the  most  eminent  surgeons  declare  that  no  emer- 
gency can  arise  which  calls  for  the  administration  of  an 
alcoholic  stimulant. 

Apoplexy.  Apoplexy  is  due  to  the  rupture  of  a  blood- 
vessel in  the  brain.  The  escaped  blood  presses  upon 
the  brain  and  causes  unconsciousness.  The  person 
generally  falls  suddenly  and  is  unconscious  at  once. 
The  breathing  is  slow  and  heavy,  the  face  is  usually 
flushed,  and  the  eyes  are  insensible  to  the  touch. 
Usually  there  is  paralysis  of  one  side  of  the  body, 
which  may  be  shown  by  one  of  the  hands  being  cold  and 
lifeless  while  the  other  is  normal.  Send  for  a  physi- 
cian promptly,  as  the  disease  is  a  very  dangerous  one. 
Slightly  raise  the  person's  head  and  apply  cold  cloths  to 
it.  Keep  the  body  and  extremities  warm  by  the  appli- 
cation of  dry  heat.  The  administration  of  alcoholic 
stimulants  would  only  hasten  a  fatal  termination. 

Apoplexy  and  Drunkenness.  It  is  often  difficult  to  dis- 
tinguish between  apoplexy  and  drunkenness.  Among 
the  differences  may  be  mentioned  the  following:  In 
drunkenness  the  person  can  generally  be  aroused,  vomit- 
ing is  quite  common,  and  there  is  a  strong  odor  of  liquor 
on  the  breath,  although  this  might  -be  present  in  a  case 
of  apoplexy  if  the  person  had  taken  some  alcoholic 
stimulant  shortly  before  the  attack. 

Artificial  Respiration.  All  cases  of  smothering,  whether 
from  breathing  injurious  gases  or  from  drowning,  call 


EMERGENCIES.  345 

for  the  same  treatment,  as  the  supply  of  oxygen  to  the 
lungs  has  been  cut  off.  Breathing  is  restored  by  imi- 
tating nature  in  expanding  and  contracting  the  chest 


FIG.  114.     Artificial  respiration  by  Sylvester  method.     Inspiration. 

walls.  One  method  of  artificial  respiration  is  known  as 
Sylvester's.  This  is  performed  as  follows :  Place  the 
person  on  the  back  with  a  roll  of  clothing  under  the 


FIG.  115.     Artificial  respiration  by  Sylvester  method.     Expiration. 

shoulders.  Kneel  at  the  head  of  the  person  and  grasp 
his  arms  at  the  elbows.  Draw  them  slowly  over  the 
head  and  hold  them  there  long  enough  to  count  four 
deliberately.  This  raises  the  chest-walls  and  allows  the 


346  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

air  to  rush  into  the  enlarged  thoracic  cavity.  Then 
push  the  arms  down  again,  firmly  but  gently  against  the 
chest,  partly  crossing  them  and  holding  them  in  that 
position  the  same  length  of  time  as  noted  above.  This 
movement  diminishes  the  size  of  the  thorax  and  forces 
out  the  air.  The  case  should  not  be  abandoned  until  the 
artificial  respiration  has  been  tried  for  an  hour  or  an 
hour  and  a  half.  The  tongue  generally  falls  back  into 
the  throat,  and  prevents  the  passage  of  air  into  the  lungs. 
To  remedy  this,  have  an  assistant  grasp  the  tongue  with 
a  dry  handkerchief,  and  draw  it  out  of  the  mouth.  If 
alone,  draw  the  tongue  out  of  the  mouth  and  thrust  a 
pin  through  it  about  a  half  inch  from  the  tip.  The  pin 
will  rest  against  the  teeth  and  prevent  the  tongue  from 
slipping  back. 

Bleeding.  In  all  cases  of  bleeding  it  should  be  re- 
membered that  if  the  edges  of  the  wound  can  be  brought 
together  and  held  there,  and  a  firm  compress  be  bound 
upon  it,  the  hemorrhage  will  often  be  checked.  A  com- 
press can  be  readily  made  by  folding  a  cloth  a  number 
of  times,  although  any  hard  substance  may  be  used  as  a 
substitute  when  necessary.  It  may  be  bound  over  the 
wound  with  a  handkerchief,  necktie,  shoe-string,  or  any- 
thing else  which  can  serve  the  purpose  of  a  bandage. 
Remember  that  bleeding  is  checked  by  elevating  the 
wounded  part  above  the  level  of  the  heart.  If  a  large 
vessel  be  injured  it  may  be  necessary  to  apply  pressure 
quickly  with  the  thumb  or  finger,  and  to  maintain  it 
until  the  arrival  of  a  surgeon.  If  the  wound  is  a  slight 
one,  pressure  upon  it  with  the  finger  for  a  few  moments 
will  probably  be  sufficient  to  check  the  bleeding  per- 
manently. As  all  bleeding  ceases  because  a  clot  is 


EMERGENCIES.  347 

formed,  care  should  be  used  not  to  wash  this  clot  away. 
Whenever  there  is  evidence  that  bleeding  is  taking 
place,  an  effort  should  be  made  to  reach  the  bleeding 
part  at  once.  It  is  only  in  this  way  that  the  wound 
can  be  properly  treated. 

When  the  bleeding  is  controlled,  if  the  wound  is  slight 
and  the  services  of  a  physician  are  not  necessary,  make 
the  part  as  clean  as  possible.  Better  not  wash  it  at 
all  than  to  use  unclean  water.  Water  which  has  been 
boiled  and  then  cooled  is  the  best.  If  there  is  slight 
oozing  of  blood,  the  water  should  be  either  cold  or  hot. 
After  allowing  clean  water  to  flow  over  the  wound  for 
some  time,  the  edges  should  be  carefully  drawn  together 
and  held  there  by  means  of  strips  of  adhesive  plaster, 
care  being  taken  not  to  cover  the  wound  entirely  with 
the  plaster.  Place  a  light  bandage  over  the  part}  and 
do  not  disturb  it  for  two  or  three  days  at  least  unless 
it  is  painful.  This  refers  particularly  to  the  cuts  which 
children,  boys  especially,  are  so  often  receiving.  When- 
ever there  is  considerable  bleeding,  or  if  the  wound  is 
large,  or  if  it  is  on  the  face  where  there  is  danger  of  a 
scar  being  left,  a  physician  should  be  called  promptly. 

Bleeding  from  an  Artery.  Bleeding  from  an  artery  is 
recognized  by  the  flow  of  the  blood,  which  is  in  spurts 
or  jets,  while  the  blood  itself  is  of  a  bright  scarlet  color. 
Have  the  person  lie  down,  while  the  attendant  lifts  or 
holds  up  the  wounded  part  if  possible. 

From  the  Lower  Extremity.  When  there  is  bleeding 
from  the  foot  or  the  leg,  have  the  person  lie  down  on  his 
back  while  an  attendant  holds  up  the  wounded  limb,  as 
illustrated  in  Fig.  116.  If  the  injury  is  in  the  foot,  and 
the  bleeding  continues,  apply  a  bandage,  beginning  to 


348 


THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 


wind  it  at  the  toes,  and  continuing  past  the  wound.  If 
the  bleeding  is  from  the  leg,  place  a  compress  over  the 
femoral  artery,  and  put  a  bandage  around  the  limb,  and 
over  the  compress,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  117.  Place  a 
stick  under  the  bandage,  and  twist  it  until  the  flow  of 
blood  ceases,  or  the  bandage  is  very  tight.  This  bandage 
should  not  be  left  on  long  for  fear  of  producing  injury, 
but  it  may  be  necessary  until  the  surgeon  arrives. 

FIG.  117. 
FIG.  116. 


FIG.  116.     Elevation  of  limb  to  control  bleeding  in  the  foot  or  leg. 
FIG.  117.     The  inner  surface  of   the  right  thigh,  showing  compress 
applied  over  the  femoral  artery. 

From  the  Upper  Extremity.  When  there  is  bleeding 
from  the  hand  or  the  forearm,  the  arm  should  be  raised 
above  the  head,  as  shown  in  Fig.  118.  If  the  bleeding 
still  continues,  pressure  should  be  made  over  the  brachial 
artery  at  the  point  indicated  by  the  short  line  in  Fig. 
"118.  Sometimes  it  is  useful  to  place  a  ball  or  compress 
in  the  arm-pit,  and  bind  the  arm  down  to  the  side,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  119. 

From  the  Lungs.  When  the  bleeding  is  from  the  lungs, 
the  person  should  lie  down  with  the  head  and  shoulders 


EMERGENCIES, 


349 


elevated.  Until  the  physician  arrives,  the  person  may 
be  given  finely  chopped  ice  to  eat,  or  he  may  drink  a 
half  glass  of  cold  water  in  which  a  teaspoonful  of  salt 
has  been  dissolved. 

From  the  Nose.  Bleeding  from  the  nose  is  the  most 
common  and  the  least  dangerous  of  all  hemorrhages. 
It  is  generally  sufficient  to  apply  cold  water  to  the  fore- 


FIG.  118. 


FIG.  119. 


FIG.  118.     Elevation  of  the  right  arm  to  control  bleeding  in  the  hand 
or  forearm. 

FIG.  119.    Pressure  upon  the  large  vessels  in  the  arm-pit  by  a  compress. 

head  and  over  the  nose,  or  back  of  the  neck,  and  to 
remain  quiet  for  a  short  time  in  the  sitting  posture. 
If  this  does  not  bring  relief,  then  compress  the  nostrils 
for  a  few  moments  ;  if  the  blood  clots  in  the  nose,  allow 
the  clots  to  remain  for  a  few  hours.  Placing  the  hands 
arid  feet  in  water  as  hot  as  can  be  borne  will  often  imme- 
diately stop  a  severe  nose-bleed.  If  the  bleeding  still 
continues,  a  physician  should  be  called.  He  may  find  it 
necessary  to  plug  the  nostrils  with  gauze  or  with  cotton, 


350  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF  HEALTH. 

From  the  Stomach.  When  the  person  vomits  blood 
and  there  is  no  evidence  that  the  blood  has  been  swal- 
lowed from  a  nose-bleed,  he  should  lie  down,  with  the 
head  and  shoulders  slightly  raised.  Small  pieces  of  ice 
may  be  given  and  cold  cloths  placed  over  the  stomach 
until  the  physician  arrives. 

From  a  Tooth.  Bleeding  after  the  extraction  of  a 
tooth  is  sometimes  profuse ;  but,  as  a  rule,  it  is  easily 
controlled  by  employing  pressure  over  the  wounded  gums 
or  by  packing  the  cavity  with  cotton  or  gauze.  A  small 
pad  may  be  placed  over  the  bleeding  surface  and  the 
jaws  closed  firmly  upon  it.  The  pad  should  be  so  thick 
that  when  the  mouth  is  closed  there  will  be  firm  pressure 
over  the  bleeding  point. 

Bleeding  from  a  Vein.  If  the  blood  flows  from  a  vein 
it  will  have  a  dark  purple  color.  The  flow  will  be  steady 
and  not  in  spurts  as  from  an  artery.  If  possible,  the 
wounded  part  should  be  elevated  above  the  level  of  the 
heart.  A  compress  and  a  firm  bandage  should  be  placed 
directly  over  the  wound,  until  the  surgeon  arrives. 

Bruises.  Bruises  are  commonly  called  black-and-blue 
spots,  "  black-eyes,"  etc.  If  the  bruise  be  slight,  wet 
cloths  in  cold  water  and  place  over  the  parts.  If  severe, 
hot  water  and  hot  poultices  are  better.  A  popular  and 
useful  treatment  for  a  black  eye  is  to  bind  upon  it  a 
mass  of  raw  lean  beef.  Often  bruises  are  fatal,  even 
when  there  is  no  break  in  the  skin.  The  internal  injury 
may  be  sufficient  to  rupture  the  liver  and  seriously  dam- 
age other  internal  organs,  and  yet  the  external  injury  to 
the  skin  be  slight.  These  severe  bruises  demand  the 
prompt  attention  of  a  surgeon. 

Burns.     If  the  burned  part  is  covered  with  clothing, 


EMERGENCIES.  351 

exercise  great  care  in  removing  it  not  to  pull  off  any  of 
the  skin.  If  the  clothing  adheres  allow  it  to  remain, 
cutting  away  all  unattached  portions.  If  there  are  blis- 
ters, open  them  with  a  new  and  perfectly  clean  needle, 
and  gently  press  out  the  water.  If  the  burn  is  slight, 
cover  the  parts  with  cloths  which  are  wet  with  water  in 
which  has  been  dissolved  as  much  baking  soda  as  the 
water  will  take  up,  and  saturate  the  cloths  frequently 
with  the  soda  mixture.  If  the  burn  is  more  severe,  satu- 
rate the  cloths  with  a  mixture  composed  of  equal  parts 
of  sweet  oil  and  lime-water.  If  these  are  not  at  hand, 
an  application  of  cream  or  a  thick  covering  of  dry  flour 
will  give  relief.  The  principal  thing  to  keep  in  mind 
is  to  cover  the  burned  part  as  quickly  as  possible  with 
something  that  will  protect  it  from  the  air.  Therefore, 
whatever  dressing  is  used,  the  injured  part  should  be 
well  covered  with  thick  layers  of  cotton  or  other  light 
material. 

If  a  person's  clothing  is  on  fire  he  should  lie  down 
quickly  and  roll  over  and  over  on  the  floor.  Under  no 
circumstances  should  he  remain  in  the  upright  position, 
as  the  flames  tend  to  rise,  surround  the  face,  and  thus 
possibly  cause  great  disfigurement  or  fatal  choking.  If 
a  coat,  rug,  or  blanket  is  at  hand,  this  may  be  quickly 
thrown  about  the  body  before  rolling  upon  the  floor. 
If  another  person  is  present,  he  should  throw  the  wrap 
over  the  burning  parts.  If  the  person  does  not  quickly 
lie  down  he  should  be  forcibly  thrown  down,  as  the 
danger  is  immensely  increased  by  standing  or  running. 
In  approaching  a  person  whose  clothing  is  burning,  it 
is  wise  to  hold  a  rug,  blanket,  or  coat  before  the  body  as 
a  protection. 


352  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 

Sunburn  is  the  same  as  any  other  burn,  only  it  is  of 
slight  degree.  The  treatment  consists  in  applying  the 
soda  solution  or  in  covering  the  parts  with  unsalted 
butter,  or  vaseline. 

Fainting.  The  principal  thing  to  remember  in  cases 
of  fainting  is  that  there  is  not  enough  blood  in  the  brain. 
Therefore,  those  things  should  be  done  which  will  pro- 
mote a  flow  of  blood  to  the  head.  Place  the  person  on 
his  back  and  keep  the  head  low,  certainly  as  low  as  the 
body ;  do  not  raise  his  head  until  consciousness  has  re- 
turned. If  a  person  does  not  regain  consciousness  in  a 
few  moments  a  physician  should  be  summoned,  for  the 
case  may  be  very  serious.  Never  give  alcohol  or  any 
alcoholic  stimulant.  Dashing  a  small  amount  of  cold 
water  in  the  face,  or  holding  an  open  bottle  of  ammonia 
near  (not  close  to)  the  nose,  may  give  aid.  When  a  per- 
son is  about  to  faint  in  a  public  hall  or  other  place 
where  it  would  be  difficult  to  lie  down  and  at  the  same 
time  receive  an  abundance  of  fresh  air,  the  faintness 
may  be  removed  by  leaning  the  body  well  forward  with 
the  head  between  the  knees,  remaining  in  this  position 
for  a  few  moments. 

Convulsions.  Small  children  and  babies  occasionally 
have  convulsions  or  fits  because  of  some  irritation  in 
the  alimentary  canal  and  also  from  other  causes.  As 
soon  as  the  convulsion  occurs  the  child  should  be  placed 
in  water  as  hot  as  can  be  borne,  with  as  little  delay  as 
possible.  The  hot  bath  will  usually  stop  the  convulsion 
at  once.  The  child  should  remain  in  the  bath  for  seve- 
ral minutes,  when  it  should  be  thoroughly  dried,  warmly 
covered,  and  placed  in  bed.  If  another  convulsion  oc- 
curs the  same  treatment  should  be  repeated.  In  all 


EMERGENCIES.  353 

cases  a  physician  should  be  summoned  as  the  convulsion 
may  not  be  from  a  simple  cause. 

Fractures.  When  it  is  known  or  feared  that  a  bone  is 
broken,  place  the  person  in  a  comfortable  position  until 
the  surgeon  comes.  It  is  better  to  wait  a  few  hours  for 
his  arrival  rather  than  to  handle  the  parts  in  order  to 
learn  what  the  matter  is.  If  however  it  is  necessary  to 
move  the  person  at  once,  make  an  artificial  support  for 
the  fractured  bones.  Place  the  parts  in  as  natural  a 
position  as  possible  and  put  around  the  limb  an  even 
and  thin  layer  of  cotton,  or  wool,  or  other  soft  material. 
Place  over  this  a  number  of  pieces  of  lath,  or  strips  of 
pasteboard,  or  any  hard  substance  which  will  give  firm 
support.  The  length  and  width  of  these  splints  must  be 
regulated  by  the  size  and  location  of  the  bone  injured. 
Bind  the  splints  to  the  limb  with  anything  which -can 
be  used  as  a  band- 
age. In  fracture 
of  the  leg  the  in- 
jured limb  may  be 
placed  on  a  pillow, 

the    Sides    of     the       Fm  12Q     An  ordinary  pillow  tied  around  a 
pillow  brought  up  fractured  leg. 

around     it,     and 

strips  of  cloth  passed  around  the  pillow,  pressing  it  firmly 

against  the  leg,  as  shown  in  Fig.  120.     It  should  be 

possible  to  move  the  person  without  causing  any  severe 

pain. 

Dislocations.  If  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  a  joint 
has  been  dislocated,  the  injured  parts  should  be  kept 
perfectly  quiet  until  the  surgeon  arrives.  Do  not  handle 
the  joint,  but  if  it  is  painful  apply  moist  heat. 

23 


354  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

Foreign  Bodies  in  the  Eye.  To  remove  foreign  bodies 
from  the  eye,  close  the  eye  and  allow  the  tears  to  ac- 
cumulate. When  the  eye  is  opened,  the  extra  flow  of 
tears  will  often  wash  out  the  foreign  substance.  If  it  is 
thought  to  be  beneath  the  lower  lid,  take  hold  of  the 
lower  eyelashes  and  pull  the  lid  down  while  the  patient 
looks  up.  In  this  way  the  inner  surface  of  the  lower  lid 
is  exposed,  and  the  particle  can  be  gently  removed  with 
the  corner  of  a  handkerchief.  If  it  is  beneath  the  upper 
lid  its  removal  is  generally  more  difficult.  By  grasping 
the  upper  eyelashes  the  lid  may  be  pulled  down  over  the 
under  one,  and  the  body  may  thus  be  removed.  If  this 
fails,  the  upper  lid  may  be  turned  and  its  inner  surface 
examined.  To  do  this  have  the  person  look  down,  then 
with  some  small  article,  as  a  match,  press  upon  the 
middle  of  the  lid  at  the  same  time  grasping  the  upper 
eyelashes  and  turning  the  lid  up  and  over  the  match. 
If  a  foreign  body  is  on  the  exposed  surface  it  can  be 
easily  seen  and  removed.  Often  the  particle  is  embedded 
in  the  substance  of  the  eyeball  itself.  A  surgeon  should 
then  be  called  upon  to  remove  it.  It  is  unwise  to  rub 
the  eye  when  any  foreign  body  is  in  it,  as  this  may  imbed 
the  particle  more  deeply  in  the  tissues.  After  the  re- 
moval of  a  foreign  body  a  sensation  as  if  it  were  present 
often  remains  for  several  hours. 

Foreign  Bodies  in  the  Ear.  When  an  insect  is  in  the 
ear  it  will  often  leave  if  a  bright  light  be  placed  a  few 
inches  from  the  opening.  If  this  fails  the  ear  may  be 
gently  syringed  with  warm  water,  or  a  few  drops  of 
warm  sweet  oil  may  be  poured  in.  If  the  foreign  body 
is  anything  which  might  swell,  as  a  bean,  no  water 
should  be  used,  but  its  removal  be  left  for  a  surgeon. 


EMERGENCIES.  355 

If  the  particles  are  small  they  may  fall  out  by  turning 
the  head  on  the  side  with  the  affected  ear  down,  espe- 
cially if  the  head  be  shaken. 

Foreign  Bodies  in  the  Nose.  To  remove  such  bodies, 
try  closing  the  clear  side  of  the  nose  and  blowing 
forcibly  through  the  other.  If  this  fails,  sneezing  can 
be  excited  by  tickling  the  nose  with  a  feather,  or  by 
inhaling  a  little  snuff.  As  no  danger  need  be  feared  at 
once,  more  active  measures  should  be  postponed  until  a 
physician  can.  be  consulted. 

Foreign  Bodies  in  the  Throat.  The  expulsion  of  foreign 
bodies  from  the  throat  can  be  aided  by  lifting  the  child 
by  the  feet,  slapping  him  sharply  on  the  back,  and  even 
jerking  him  up  and  down  two  or  three  times.  If  the 
body  has  passed  into  the  windpipe  there  is  great  danger, 
and  a  surgeon  must  be  summoned  at  once.  This  condi- 
tion will  be  indicated  by  short,  spasmodic  coughing,  and 
the  dusky  appearance  of  the  face. 

Freezing.  In  treating  frostbite  an  effort  should  be 
made  to  restore  the  frozen  parts  by  rubbing  with  cold 
water  or  snow  until  the  white  color  disappears.  If  heat  be 
applied  at  first  there  is  danger  that  the  flow  of  blood  to 
the  injured  tissues  will  be  too  great,  and,  as  a  result, 
inflammation  and  death  of  the  parts  will  take  place.  If 
the  whole  body  has  been  exposed  to  cold  until  there  is 
danger  that  it  has  been  injured,  the  person  should  not  be 
brought  near  a  fire  until  the  whole  body  has  been  rubbed 
thoroughly  with  snow  or  cloths  wet  in  cold  water.  He 
should  then  be  placed  in  a  cool  room  which  can  be  grad- 
ually heated.  Hot  drinks,  as  hot  coffee,  can  be  admin- 
istered but  under  no  circumstances  should  alcoholic 
stimulants  be  given.  The  after  treatment  of  freezing  is 
much  the  same  as  that  given  for  burns. 


356  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 

Chilblains  are  usually  caused  by  bringing  cold  feet 
too  quickly  near  the  fire,  Persons  who  are  subject  to 
chilblains  should  warm  their  feet  by  stamping  or  rubbing 
rather  than  by  placing  them  near  a  fire. 

Hysterics.  Sometimes  after  excessive  laughing  or  cry- 
ing, a  person  may  have  what  resembles  a  severe  convul- 
sion. Hysterics  require  no  treatment.  Often  a  dash  of 
cold  water  in  the  face  will  quickly  restore  the  person. 

Dry  Heat.  Dry  heat  is  applied  by  means  of  the  ordi- 
nary hot-water  bag  of  India  rubber.  Other  methods  are 
as  useful  but  not  so  convenient.  Bottles  may  be  filled 
with  hot  water,  or  bags  filled  with  salt  or  bran  and  then 
thoroughly  heated,  or  heated  bricks,  or  hot  flatirons, 
may  be  used  after  they  have  been  covered  with  some 
cloth. 

Moist  Heat.  Hot  applications  are  very  useful  in  many 
affections.  A  convenient  way  of  applying  them  is  by 
placing  a  piece  of  flannel  in  the  centre  of  a  towel  and 
dipping  the  centre  of  the  towel  with  the  flannel  into  hot 
water.  By  twisting  the  ends  of  the  towel  in  opposite 
direction  the  excess  of  water  is  removed  from  the  flan- 
nel. It  can  then  be  applied  to  the  affected  part  with 
the  heat  and  moisture  retained  and  without  exposing 
the  hands  of  the  attendant  to  the  hot  water. 

Mustard  Plaster.  As  a  relief  from  pain,  the  mustard 
plaster  is  in  common  use.  It  is  prepared  by  mixing  an 
equal  quantity  of  ground  mustard  and  flour  and  making 
these  into  a  paste,  by  adding  some  water,  or,  what  is 
better,  the  white  of  an  egg.  This  paste  is  spread  upon 
a  cloth  and  laid  over  the  affected  part.  If  the  skin  is 
very  sensitive  some  thin  material  may  be  placed  between 
the  plaster  and  the  body.  The  plaster  should  not 


EMERGENCIES.  357 

remain  on  long  enough  to  blister,  but  simply  to  redden 
the  skin. 

Emetics.  An  emetic  is  a  substance  which  produces 
vomiting.  A  tablespoonful  of  powdered  mustard  in  a 
glassful  of  warm  water  is  an  excellent  emetic.  It  can  be 
repeated  every  ten  minutes  until  vomiting  occurs.  If 
mustard  is  not  at  hand,  try  the  same  quantity  of  com 
mon  salt.  After  taking  these  remedies  the  vomiting 
may  be  hastened  by  thrusting  the  finger  in  the  mouth 
until  it  touches  the  back  of  the  throat,  or  a  feather  may 
be  used  in  place  of  the  finger. 

Poisons.  The  following  acids  are  irritating  poisons 
and  require  the  same  treatment :  muriatic,  nitric  (aqua 
fortis),  oxalic,  sulphuric  (vitriol).  Immediately  give 
three  or  four  teaspoonfuls  of  baking  soda,  magnesia, 
chalk,  or  saleratus  dissolved  in  a  glass  of  water.  If 
necessary,  remove  some  of  the  plastering  from  the  wall, 
crush  it,  and  give  the  same  amount  mixed  with  water. 
Follow  this  witli  some  soothing  drink,  as  flaxseed  tea. 
Emetics  are  not  necessary  and  might  do  harm.  The 
object  is  to  check  further  action  of  the  acids  by  giving 
their  antidotes,  the  alkalies. 

For  carbolic  acid  or  creasote,  do  not  give  an  emetic, 
but  administer  the  white  of  several  eggs.  Give  quan- 
tities of  milk  or  water  having  flour  mixed  with  it. 

For  ammonia,  solutions  of  potash  or  soda,  or  any 
alkaline  as  lye,  give  vinegar  or  lemon  juice.  Follow 
this  with  cream  or  melted  butter.  Emetics  are  not 
indicated. 

For  nitrate  of  silver,  lunar  caustic,  give  a  quantity  of 
salt  and  water.  No  emetic. 

For   corrosive   sublimate   and   other   preparations  oi 


358 


THE   ESSENTIALS   OF  HEALTH. 


mercury  do  not  give  an  emetic,  but  order  the  free  use 
of  milk  and  the  white  of  eggs. 

For  preparations  of  copper,  as  verdigris,  blue  vitriol, 
and  for  poisoning  from  eating  food  which  has  been 
cooked  in  copper  vessels,  give  the  white  of  eggs  or  flour 
and  water.  No  emetic. 

For  copperas  or  green  vitriol  give  ordinary  baking 
soda  dissolved  in  water,  in  a  proportion  of  a  teaspoonf ul 
to  a  cup  of  water.  Follow  this  with  raw  eggs  and  milk. 

For  arsenic,  Fowler's  solution,  paris  green,  or  Rough 
on  Rats,  cause  repeated  vomiting.  Procure  from  the 
nearest  druggist  some  freshly  made  hydrated  sesqui- 
oxide  of  iron  and  give  freely. 

FIG.  121.  FIG.  122. 


FIG.  121.    Virginia  creeper. 

FIG.  122.  Poison-ivy,  sometimes  mistaken  for  the  Virginia  creeper. 
The  Poison-ivy  leaf  has  three  leaflets,  and  the  Virginia  creeper  five. 

For  opium,  morphine,  laudanum,  paregoric,  soothing 
syrups,  and  mixtures  of  all  kinds  which  produce  sleep, 
cause  repeated  vomiting.  Give  very  strong  coffee,  with- 


EMERGENCIES.  359 

out  sugar  or  milk,  freely.  Keep  the  patient  awake  until 
the  physician  arrives,  by  walking,  whipping,  or  any 
other  exercise. 

For  poisonous  berries  or  poisonous  weeds,  cause  vom- 
iting and  give  strong  hot  coffee. 

Poison-ivy,  poison  "oak,  and  poison  sumac  cause  a 
painful  rash  even  if  they  but  lightly  touch  the  skin.  In 
fact,  it  is  not  necessary  that  there  be  actual  contact,  as 
a  near  approach  to  these  plants  is  often  all  that  is 
necessary  to  become  poisoned  by  them.  Bathe  the  skin 
frequently  with  a  strong  solution  of  soda.  Covering 
the  skin  with  vaseline  is  also  useful. 

Shock.  Shock  is  a  condition  of  great  depression  of 
the  nervous  system.  It  usually  follows  severe  accidents, 
operations,  or  strong  mental  emotions.  The  person  is 
weak  and  faint,  the  skin  is  cold,  the  pulse  is  weak  or 
absent,  and  the  whole  condition  resembles  approaching 
death.  The  person  should  be  placed  on  his  back  with 
the  head  low.  Dry  heat  should  be  applied  to  the  cold 
body  and  extremities.  Never  give  alcoholic  liquors  of 
any  kind. 

Stunning.  After  a  blow  or  fall  a  person  may  be  be- 
wildered as  a  result  of  the  shaking  of  his  brain.  Keep 
the  head  cool  with  cloths  wet  in  cold  water  and  have 
the  person  remain  as  quiet  as  possible.  The  administra- 
tion of  alcoholic  liquors  might  cause  congestion  of  the 
brain  and  they  should  never  be  given. 

Sprains.  Sprains  are  often  of  a  serious  nature.  They 
are  accompanied  with  great  pain  and  swelling  at  the 
joint.  Permanent  lameness  has  often  followed  severe 
sprains.  The  joint  should  be  placed  in  the  position 
which  is  the  most  comfortable,  and  moist  heat  applied. 


360  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

The  temperature  of  the  applications  should  be  gradually 
increased,  until  it  is  as  hot  as  can  be  endured.  After 
continuing  the  hot  applications  for  an  hour  the  joint 
may  be  wrapped  in  wet  bandages  and  kept  in  an  ele- 
vated position.  In  a  day  or  two  after  the  injury  begin 
to  move  the  joint  gently,  rubbing  it  with  some  liniment. 

Stings.  Often  the  stinger  of  wasps,  bees,  etc.,  remains 
in  the  wound.  This  should  be  removed  by  the  fingers, 
or  by  small  forceps.  Apply  spirits  of  ammonia,  or  a 
strong  solution  of  soda  to  the  wound.  Boys  have  often 
found  that  binding  on  ordinary  mud  gives  relief. 

Sunstroke.  Persons  affected  with  sunstroke  should  be 
removed  to  a  cool  place  and  the  excessive  heat  o£  the 
body  reduced  as  quickly  as  possible.  Bags  of  cracked 
ice  should  be  placed  upon  or  around  the  head  which 
should  be  slightly  raised.  The  body  may  be  bathed  in 
cold  water,  or  placed  for  a  few  minutes  in  a  bath  tub 
filled  with  cold  water.  A  method  highly  recommended 
is  to  remove  all  the  clothing  and  pour  cold  water  over 
the  entire  body.  The  vessel  containing  the  water,  as 
an  ordinary  watering  pot,  should  be  held  three  or  four 
feet  above  the  body  and  the  water  poured  first  upon 
the  head,  then  on  the  chest  and  abdomen,  and  lastly  on 
the  extremities.  Persons  are  sometimes  affected  by  the 
heat  in  a  peculiar  manner.  Instead  of  having  a  flushed 
face,  hot  skin,  and  every  evidence  of  extreme  heat,  as 
would  be  the  case  when  the  above  treatment  was  in- 
dicated, the  face  may  be  pale,  the  pulse  weak,  and  the 
skin  cool.  Such  cases  are  often  rapidly  fatal.  In  these 
cases  the  treatment  consists  in  applying  warmth  ex- 
ternally and  in  giving  warm  drinks  internally. 


KESTRICTION   OF   COMMUNICABLE  DISEASES.     361 


CHAPTER   XXXV. 

THE    RESTRICTION    AND    PREVENTION 
OF    COMMUNICABLE    DISEASES. 

The  Prevalence  of  Germs.  When  we  look  into  the  air  of 
a  well  lighted  room  it  appears  to  be  entirely  free  from 
dust.  But  when  only  a  ray  of  sunlight  enters  the  room 
it  is  quickly  seen  that  the  atmosphere  is  filled  with 
floating  particles.  It  is  a  useful  lesson  to  note  care- 
fully the  countless  numbers  of  these  particles  and  to 
watch  them  floating  about  in  the  air  in  every  direction. 
This  dust  is  composed  of  particles  large  enough  to  be 
seen  with  the  unaided  eye.  If  these  larger  particles  can 
thus  easily  float  about,  it  is  easy  to  understand  how 
much  smaller  ones  can  be  thoroughly  distributed. 

Germs  are  independent  living  bodies,  so  minute  that 
the  highest  powers  of  the  microscope  are  necessary  for 
their  detection.  In  fact,  many  forms  are  so  minute  and 
transparent  that  it  is  necessary  to  add  some  coloring 
agent  to  make  them  visible.  Germs  exist  everywhere. 
They  are  in  the  atmospheric  dust,  in  the  water  we 
drink,  and  upon  all  solid  bodies.  They  are  not  only  on 
the  surface  of  the  human  body,  but  within  it  as  well. 
Although  there  are  many  species,  germs  may  be  divided 
into  two  general  classes  :  those  which  are  harmless,  and 


362  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF  HEALTH. 

those  which  are  capable  of  causing  trouble,  more  or  less 
serious. 

Germs  may  be  destroyed  by  chemical  agents,  which 
are  known  as  disinfectants,  and  by  the  application  of 
heat.  Raising  the  temperature  to  the  boiling  point 
practically  destroys  all  forms  of  germ  life. 

Germs  cause  Disease.  A  few  diseases  are  known  to  be 
caused  by  germs.  There  are  other  diseases  which  are 
believed  to  have  the  same  cause,  although  the  proof  is 
not  yet  complete.  When  we  know  that  a  disease  is 
caused  by  a  germ,  it  is  reasonable  that  every  effort 
should  be  made  to  destroy  that  germ,  and  thus  to  save 
those  in  health  from  coming  in  contact  with  it. 

Modes  of  Spreading.  The  so-called  "  contagious  " 
diseases  are  generally  spread  by  means  of  the  dust 
which  exists  in  the  atmosphere  at  all  times. 

The  nose  is  especially  constructed  to  filter  the  dust 
from  the  air.  The  nostrils  are  guarded  by  minute  hairs 
which  are  kept  moist  by  the  exhaled  breath.  The  nasal 
cavities  are  constantly  moist  also.  To  these  moist  sur- 
faces the  dust  clings  as  the  air  passes  over  them. 

When  we  remember  that  the  nose  has  such  power  to 
filter  dust  from  the  air,  the  importance  of  a  proper  care 
of  the  handkerchief  is  made  very  clear.  Severe  colds 
often  pass  from  one  member  of  a  family  to  another 
because  of  improper  attention  to  the  handkerchief. 
If  the  secretions  from  the  nose  are  allowed  to  dry  upon 
the  handkerchief,  they  are  easily  set  free  to  form  a  part 
of  the  ever  present  dust  in  the  air.  Whenever  a  person 
has  a  hard  cold,  the  handkerchiefs  should  be  frequently 
changed  and  the  soiled  ones  either  placed  immediately 
in  bofling  water,  or  temporarily  in  a  paper  bag,  which 


RESTRICTION  OF  COMMUNICABLE  DISEASES.     363 

should  be  burned  when  the  handkerchiefs  are  removed. 
Hard  colds  are  debilitating  and  every  means  to  prevent 
them  should  be  taken.  Attention  to  a  few  hygienic 
rules  may  prevent  the  spread  of  a  hard  cold  through  the 
household.  This  care  of  the  handkerchief  also  becomes 
a  most  important  matter  whenever  the  person  has  any 
communicable  disease. 

Another  source  of  danger  is  from  the  dust  which 
rises  from  the  floors,  or  articles  of  furniture,  upon 
which  expectorated  matter  has  been  deposited.  The 
almost  universal  habit  among  men  of  expectorating  upon 
the  sidewalks,  on  the  floors  of  street  cars,  etc.,  is  most 
pernicious. 

The  dust  which  comes  from  the  clothing,  or  from  the 
rooms,  of  persons  who  have  some  communicable  disease 
is  also  a  source  of  danger. 

There  is  some  danger  from  the  handling  of  books, 
pencils,  etc.,  which  have  been  used  by  persons  who  had 
a  communicable  disease.  For  this  reason  each  pupil 
should  be  provided  with  his  own  pencil  and  paper,  books 
and  drinking-cup.  When  books  are  furnished  to  pupils 
it  is  wise  to  require  each  pupil  to  cover  his  books  with  a 
good  manilla  paper,  which  can  be  removed  and  burned 
at  the  close  of  the  year,  or  as  soon  as  the  pupil  is  through 
with  the  books. 

Impure  drinking  water  is  the  cause  of  the  spread  of 
typhoid  fever.  The  water  may  appear  very  clear  and 
sparkling  and  yet  contain  the  germs  of  this  disease. 

Protection  of  the  Body.  -The  body  is  well  protected 
from  the  action  of  these  germs  of  disease.  Otherwise 
it  would  be  difficult  to  understand  how  any  of  us  escape 
being  ill  all  the  time. 


364  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

As  stated  on  page  200,  the  epidermis  protects  the 
body  from  poisonous  matter.  Were  it  not  for  this  fact 
the  surgeon  could  not  safely  perform  much  of  his  work. 
A  slight  cut  or  prick  of  the  finger  through  this  outer 
layer  of  cells  may  be  sufficient  to  allow  the  entrance  of 
some  virulent  form  of  germ  life,  producing  blood  poison- 
ing and  even  death. 

The  mucous  membranes  which  line  the  respiratory 
and  alimentary  tracts  also  protect  the  body.  While  this 
protection  may  not  be  complete,  even  when  these  mem- 
branes are  in  a  healthy  condition,  it  is  true  that  any 
break  or  ulceration  in  their  surface  greatly  favors  the 
entrance  of  the  germs. 

Another  source  of  protection  resides  within  the  body 
itself.  This  is  called  the  "  resistive  power "  of  the 
body.  Some  authorities  claim  that  this  power  resides 
in  the  white  corpuscles  of  the  blood  because  these  bodies 
have  the  power  to  destroy  a  limited  number  of  germs. 

From  this  it  is  seen  that  if  the  throat  were  in  a  per- 
fectly healthy  condition,  the  danger  of  contracting 
diphtheria  would  not  be  so  great.  If  the  lungs  were  in 
a  normal  state,  there  would  not  be  the  same  danger 
from  consumption.  If  the  alimentary  canal  were  healthy 
the  danger  from  typhoid  fever  would  not  be  so  marked. 
And,. last  of  all,  if  the  whole  body  were  in  a  strong  and 
robust  state  it  would  have  greater  power  of  resisting 
disease.  It  is  true  that  strong  children  and  equally 
strong  adults  do  have  contagious  diseases  and  die  from 
them  ;  yet  it  cannot  be  disputed  that  they  have  a  better 
chance  of  escape  than  those  who  are  in  poor  health. 

Why  some  Escape.  Many  persons  are  exposed  to  these 
communicable  diseases  who  do  not  have  them.  For 


RESTRICTION  OF  COMMUNICABLE  DISEASES.     365 

instance,  two  brothers  may  occupy  the  same  sleeping 
room  and  may  be  together  constantly  during  the  day ; 
yet  one  may  have  consumption  and  the  other  not. 
Again,  all  the  family  may  drink  water  in  which  are  the 
germs  of  typhoid  fever,  and  yet  only  one  member  of  the 
family  have  the  disease.  In  a  general  way,  this  is 
explained  as  follows :  To  produce  a  contagious  or  com- 
municable disease  it  is  not  alone  necessary  that  the 
germs  of  the  disease  be  present ;  there  must  also  be  "  a 
suitable  soil "  in  which  these  germs  can  grow.  In  other 
words,  after  the  germs  have  found  entrance  into  the 
body,  certain  conditions  are  necessary  for  their  growth 
and  development. 

Communicable  Diseases.  The  most  dangerous  commu- 
nicable diseases,  in  the  order  of  their  importance,  are 
consumption,  pneumonia,  diphtheria,  typhoid  fever, 
scarlet  fever,  measles,  whooping  cough,  and  small-pox. 
Influenza,  or  la  grippe,  should  be  added  to  this  list,  at 
times  when  it  becomes  epidemic.  Some  years  ago  there 
were  only  a  few  deaths  from  this  disease  ;  but  of  late 
years,  when  it  has  been  epidemic,  the  death  rate  has 
been  very  high.  The  Michigan  State  Board  of  Health 
reported  few  deaths  from  influenza  up  to  the  year  1889. 
But  in  1890,  1891,  and  1892  the  deaths  reported  from  it 
average  1000  a  year. 

Consumption.  Consumption  is  now  known  to  be  due 
to  a  germ,  called  the  tubercle  bacillus.  The  sputum,  or 
expectorated  matter,  of  consumptive  persons  is  filled 
with  these  germs.  When  the  sputum  dries  it  is  easily 
powdered  and  set  free,  floating  through  the  air  forming 
a  part  of  the  atmospheric  dust.  This  dust  is  inhaled 
by  others  and,  if  the  right  conditions  are  present,  the 


366  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   HEALTH. 

germs  find  a  suitable  soil  to  grow  and  produce  the 
disease. 

A  careful  examination  of  expectorated  matter,  by  one 
skilled  in  the  use  of  the  microscope,  will  decide  the 
question  of  the  presence  of  these  germs.  In  this  way 
it  is  possible  to  determine  the  presence  of  consumption 
in  its  very  first  stages. 

Persons  who  have  consumption  should  exercise  the 
utmost  care  not  to  allow  any  of  the  expectorated  matter 
to  become  dry  and  enter  the  air  as  dust.  Small  pieces 
of  cloth  should  be  carried,  and  when  these  have  been 
used  they  should  be  burned  at  the  first  opportunity.  If 
a  cup,  or  cuspidor  is  used,  it  should  be  kept  partly  filled 
with  water  and  should  be  frequently  emptied.  After 
emptying,  it  should  be  thoroughly  washed  with  boiling 
water.  In  a  word,  every  effort  should  be  used  to  destroy 
all  expectorated  matter  as  soon  as  possible,  and  under 
no  circumstances  should  it  be  allowed  to  become  dry. 

Pneumonia.  There  are  good  reasons  for  believing  that 
pneumonia  is  a  disease  caused  by  a  germ.  As  this  germ 
exists  in  the  sputum  of  the  person  who  has  the  disease, 
all  expectorated  matter  should  be  promptly  destroyed. 
Since  pneumonia  exists  for  only  a  short  time,  generally 
a  few  days,  it  is  easy  to  carry  out  these  instructions. 

Influenza.  When  this  disease  becomes  an  epidemic  it 
is  a  very  severe  affection,  and  large  numbers  die  from 
it.  Often  the  patient  does  not  fully  recover  from  an 
attack  for  many  months,  and  in  many  cases  complete 
recovery  never  occurs.  The  disease  is  believed  to  be 
due  to  a  germ  which  is  inhaled  with  the  air.  Persons 
who  have  it  should  be  isolated,  placed  in  a  room  away 
from  other  members  of  the  family  except  those  engaged 


KESTRICTION   OF   COMMUNICABLE  DISEASES.      36? 

in  nursing.  All  discharges  from  the  nose  and  throat 
should  be  promptly  destroyed. 

Diphtheria.  The  germs  of  diphtheria  are  very  active, 
and  the  most  stringent  measures  are  necessary  to  re- 
strict and  prevent  the  disease.  All  discharges  from  the 
nose,  mouth  and  throat  should  be  destroyed  at  once, 
as  they  probably  contain  immense  numbers  of  these 
virulent  germs.  The  person  should  be  placed  in  a  well 
lighted  room,  in  which  there  is  little  furniture,  and  no 
one  should  be  allowed  to  enter  it  but  the  physician  and 
nurse.  If  there  is  diphtheria  in  the  neighborhood,  village, 
or  city  in  which  the  person  lives,  all  cases  of  sore  throat 
should  be  regarded  with  suspicion  until  the  physician  is 
able  to  give  a  positive  answer.  This  is  simply  a  wise 
precaution,  because  a  case  which  is  apparently  only  a 
simple  one  may  prove  to  be  a  serious  form  of  diphtheria. 
We  must  remember  that  if  the  germs  of  diphtheria  are  in 
the  throat,  the  matter  from  these  parts,  when  it  becomes 
dry  on  handkerchiefs,  floors,  etc.,  will  be  inhaled  by 
others.  Hence  the  importance  of  completely  destroying 
all  matter  discharged  from  the  nose,  mouth,  and  throat 
of  those  who  have  the  disease. 

Typhoid  Fever.  Typhoid  fever  is  generally  spread  by 
means  of  drinking  water.  At  least  the  germs  of  this 
disease  must  reach  the  lower  part  of  the  alimentary 
canal  before  they  can  produce  serious  trouble.  Drink- 
ing water  that  contains  these  germs  has  usually  been 
polluted  with  leakage  from  sewers  or  out-houses.  Ordi- 
nary niters  will  not  remove  the  germs  from  the  water. 
There  are  germ  filters,  however,  which  accomplish  thia 
in  a  satisfactory  manner.  Water  can  also  be  freed  from 
these  germs  by  boiling.  As  this  is  easily  done,  and  as 


368  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF   HEALTH. 

the  water  does  not  taste  badly  when  cooled  after  boiling, 
it  is  advisable  to  use  only  water  that  has  been  boiled,  if 
there  is  any  question  about  its  purity. 

Scarlet  Fever.  Although  it  is  not  positively  proven, 
yet  it  is  generally  believed  that  scarlet  fever  is  caused 
by  a  germ.  The  person  who  is  ill  with  this  disease 
should  be  isolated,  and  all  discharges  from  the  nose, 
mouth  and  throat  should  be  immediately  destroyed. 
Later,  when  the  body  is  "  peeling,"  special  care  is  neces- 
sary in  order  to  destroy  the  minute  scales  and  prevent 
them  as  much  as  possible  from  becoming  a  part  of  the 
dust  of  the  atmosphere,  and  thus  a  possible  source  of 
contagion  to  others. 

Measles.  The  same  can  be  said  of  the  cause  of 
measles,  a  disease  which  is  easily  spread  among  children. 
Isolation  and  disinfection  are  the  two  words  to  keep  in 
mind  in  preventing  and  restricting  the  disease. 

Whooping  Cough.  As  this  is  a  communicable  disease, 
care  should  be  taken  that  the  child  who  has  it  does 
not  mingle  with  other  children,  and  thus  expose  them 
to  it. 

Small-pox.  Small-pox  is  spread  by  means  of  the  par- 
ticles which  come  from  the  surface  of  the  body.  As 
vaccination  is  such  a  protection,  no  one  shoufd  omit  its 
employment.  It  is  best  to  be  vaccinated  at  least  once 
every  five  years,  for  one  vaccination  does  not  protect  for 
life.  Whenever  small-pox  is  prevalent,  a  person  should 
be  revaccinated  without  regard  to  the  length  of  time 
since  the  last  vaccination. 

Isolation.  Isolation  does  not  mean  that  the  person 
who  is  ill  must  be  placed  alone  in  a  room  and  neglected. 
It  does  mean,  however,  that  every  precaution  consistent 


RESTRICTION  OF  COMMUNICABLE  DISEASES.     369 

with  the  best  interests  of  the  patient  should  be  employed 
in  order  that  no  one  shall  come  near  the  person  except 
the  nurse  and  physician.  If  the  disease  be  scarlet  fever 
or  measles,  the  attendant  may  be  one  who  has  suffered 
in  the  same  way  and  who  would  now  probably  be  unlikely 
to  contract  the  disease.  In  the  case  of  diphtheria,  adults 
are  not  so  likely  to  acquire  the  disease  as  children.  The 
fact  that  a  person  has  one  of  these  communicable  dis- 
eases in  a  very  mild  way,  does  not  lessen  the  necessity 
of  isolation.  When  the  attendant  leaves  the  sick  room, 
the  outer  clothing  should  be  changed,  and  the  hands,  face, 
and  hair  thoroughly  washed.  If  there  are  a  number  of 
children  in  the  house,  and  one  of  them  is  taken  ill  with 
diphtheria  or  scarlet  fever,  the  well  children  should  not 
be  allowed  to  attend  school,  or  in  any  way  to  mingle 
with  other  children  until  all  danger  of  their  conveying 
the  disease  is  over. 

Disinfection.  A  disinfectant  is  an  agent  that  destroys 
disease-germs.  The  simplest  and  one  of  the  best  dis- 
infectants is  heat.  Boiling  for  half  an  hour  is  sufficient 
to  destroy  germ-life.  All  cups,  spoons,  and  vessels  of 
every  description  used  about  the  sick-room  should  be 
placed  in  water  before  they  leave  the  room,  and  then 
should  be  boiled  as  already  described.  All  clothing,  and 
bedding  which  would  not  be  injured  thereby,  should  be 
treated  to  the  boiling  also. 

There  are  some  chemical  agents  which  have  marked 
disinfectant  properties.  Some  of  these  have  already 
been  mentioned  on  page  148.  Corrosive  sublimate,  the 
bichloride  of  mercury,  is  a  most  powerful  disinfectant. 
For  disinfecting  clothing  a  solution  can  be  made  of  the 
strength  of  fifteen  grains  to  a  gallon  of  water.  It  is, 

24 


370  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HEALTH. 

however,  an  extremely  fatal  poison,  and  the  physician 
had  best  be  consulted  before  it  is  used.  Chloride  of 
lime  is  a  useful  disinfectant.  A  solution  of  four  ounces 
of  lime  dissolved  in  a  gallon  of  water  can  be  used  to 
disinfect  the  vessels  in  which  are  received  the  discharges 
from  typhoid  fever  patients. 

To  Disinfect  the  Sick  Room.  After  the  removal  of  the 
sick  person  from  the  room,  everything  should  be  thor- 
oughly disinfected.  If  the  bedding,  garments,  and  fur- 
niture are  not  too  valuable  they  had  better  be  burned. 
All  other  garments  and  bed  furnishings,  if  not  injured 
thereby,  should  be  boiled  for  at  least  half  an  hour. 
Spread  all  other  clothing  and  bedding- loosely  over  the 
chairs.  With  pieces  of  cloth  or  cotton,  tightly  close 
every  opening  about  the  room  so  far  as  it  is  possible. 
In  order  to  prevent  any  danger  from  fire,  take  an  ordi- 
nary wash-tub  and  place  in  it  water  to  the  depth  of  a 
couple  of  inches.  Set  a  shallow  iron  pan,  or  a  low  iron 
kettle  upon  a  couple  of  bricks  in  the  centre  of  the  water. 
For  a  room  ten  feet  square  use  three  pounds  of  sulphur. 
Break  the  sulphur  into  small  pieces  and  moisten  them 
slightly  with  alcohol.  Put  the  sulphur  in  the  iron  dish 
and  set  it  on  fire,  using  care  not  to  breathe  the  strong 
fumes  which  will  immediately  arise.  Promptly  leave 
the  room  and  close  the  door  tightly.  After  twenty-four 
hours  throw  open  the  doors  and  windows  and  allow  the 
gas  to  escape.  Wash  all  the  wood-work  with  soap  and 
water,  and,  if  possible,  have  the  room  newly  papered  and 
painted.  It  is  wise  to  allow  the  contents  of  the  room 
to  be  exposed  to  the  outdoor  air  for  a  day  or  two  if  the 
weather  will  permit. 


INDEX. 


ABSORBENTS,  149, 
Absorption,  84. 

review  of,  90. 
Adipose  tissue,  202. 
Air,  abundance  of,  142. 
amount  inhaled,  140. 
deficiency  of,  143. 
expired,  136. 
inspired,  136. 
proper  amount,  144. 
pure,  144. 
Air  cells.  128. 
Albumen,  23. 
Albuminoids,  23. 

Albuminous  foods,  where  digested,  72. 
Alcohol,  40. 

a  poison,  43,  52,  284,  331. 
abolishes  sensation,  288. 
affinity  for  nervous  tissue,  285. 
appetite,  50. 
appetite  inherited,  51. 
causes  crime,  53,  336. 
insanity,  292. 
poverty,  54,  335. 
ulcers,"  80. 

wrong  use  of  money,  337. 
chief  danger  of,  44. 
deception  of,  340. 
destructive,  56. 
effects  on  blood,  102. 
blood-vessels,  80. 
cells,  16. 

cerebrum,  288,  289. 
education,  338. 
eyes,  304. 
heart,  118. 
kidnevs,  154. 
effects  on  life,  53,  334. 
liver,  81. 
lungs,  137. 
mind.  291. 
muscle,  197. 
nervous  tissue,  283,  286. 
spinal  cord,  287. 


Alcohol, 

effects  on  stomach,  79. 
temperature,  230. 

inherited  effects,  293. 

insanity  from,  52. 

not  a  food,  55. 

not  necessary,  332. 

opposed  to  good  order,  338. 

testimony  against,  329. 
Alimentary  canal,  59. 
Animal  heat,  224. 
Animals,  cold,  warm  blooded,  225 
Apoplexy,  91),  344. 

and  drunkenness,  344. 
Apples,  30. 
Arteries,  112. 

names  of,  116, 117. 
Artificial  respiration,  344. 
Atlas,  167. 
Axis,  168. 


BACTERIA,  41. 
Baths,  forms  of,  218. 

value  of,  219. 

Bathe,  when,  how,  216,  218. 
Bathing,  importance  of,  215. 

salt  water,  217. 
Beer,  47. 

food-value,  48. 

home-made,  49. 
Bicycle,  194. 
Bile,  76. 
Bleeding,  346. 

from  artery,  347. 

lower  extremity,  347. 

lungs,  348. 

nose,  349. 

stomach,  350. 

tooth,  350. 

upper  extremity,  348. 

vein,  350. 
Blind  spot,  301. 
Blood,  93, 


372 


INDEX. 


Blood, 

and  alcohol,  102. 

arterial,  96,  98. 

clotting,  98. 

composition,  94. 

fibrin,  99. 

venous,  96,  98. 
Blood  corpuscles,  94. 

function,  96. 

haemoglobin,  97. 

oval,  100. 

size,  96. 
Blushing,  271. 
Bone,  cancellous  tissue,  157. 

cells,  159. 

compact  tissue,  157. 

composition,  161. 

description,  156. 

marrow,  158. 

microscopic  structure,  158. 

reproduction,  162. 

strength  of,  163. 
Bones  of  the  chest,  170. 

foot,  173. 

lower  extremities,  172. 

nose,  311. 

pelvis,  172. 

skull,  165. 

spinal  column,  165. 

upper  extremities,  170. 
Brain,  257. 
Brains,  two,  268. 
Brandy,  48. 
Bread,'  28. 

where  digested,  72. 
Bronchi,  128. 
Bruises,  350. 
Burns,  350.   _ 


CANE  sugar,  35. 
Canning  fruits,  41. 
Capillaries,  114. 
Carbonic  acid,  97,  141. 
Casein,  73. 
Catarrh,  3]  4. 
Cellar,  ventilate.  147. 
Cells,  11. 

development,  13. 

function,  15. 

growth,  13. 

life,  12. 

motion,  14. 

structure,  11. 
Cement  of  teeth,  64, 
Cereal  grains,  27. 
Cerebellum,  262. 

function,  269. 


Cerebro-spinal  system,  253. 
Cerebrum,  258. 

convolutions,  260. 

function,  268. 

structure,  261. 
Change  of  voice,  127. 
Chest,  sounds,  135. 
Chilblains,  356. 
Chloral,  252. 
Chloroform,  252. 
Chocolate,  252. 
Chyle,  89. 
Chyme,  73. 
Cider,  44. 

Cigarette  smoking,  340. 
Cigarettes,  233. 

and  arsenic,  235. 
Circulation,  103. 

aids  to,  117. 

force  of,  117. 

general,  115. 

rapidity,  115. 

through  heart,  107. 
Circulatory  apparatus,  103. 
Clavicle,  170. 
Clothing,  219. 

adaptation  of,  220. 

materials,  220. 

on  fire,  351. 

weight,  221. 
Coagulation,  98. 
Cocaine,  252. 
Coffee,  38,  252. 
Cold,  cure,  222. 

results,  154. 
Color  blindness,  302. 
Complexion,  219. 
Conjunctiva,  296. 
Connective  tissue  cells,  203. 
Consumption,  365. 
Contagion,  149. 
Contagious  diseases,  362. 
Convulsions,  352. 
Cooking,  36. 
Corn  starch,  34. 
Coughing  center,  270. 


DELIRIUM  tremens,  290. 
Dentine,  of  teeth,  65. 
Deodorizers,  148. 
Digestion,  57. 

effects  of  opium,  83. 
tea,  coffee,  83. 
tobacco,  82. 

how  affected,  73. 

object,  57. 

table  for,  75. 


IXDEX. 


373 


Digestive  apparatus,  58. 

fluids,  57. 
Diphtheria,  367. 
Disinfectants,  148. 
Disinfection,  369. 

sick  room,  370. 
Dislocations,  353. 
Distillation,  48. 
Dyspepsia,  74. 


EAR,  bones,  318. 

drum,  317. 

external,  316. 

foreign  bodies  in,  354. 

inner,  320. 

middle,  317. 
Ears,  care,  321. 
Eggs,  26. 
Emetics,  357. 
Enamel,  of  teeth,  64. 
Epidermis,  203. 

uses,  205. 
Epiglottis,  128. 
Equilibrium,  sense,  320. 
Eustachian  tube,  320. 
Exercise,  191. 

amount,  193. 

benefits,  195. 

forms,  194. 

when,  196. 
Expression,  197. 
Expiration,  134. 
Eyes,  care,  303. 

effects  of  alcohol,  304. 
tobacco,  305. 

foreign  bodies  in,  354. 

oil  glands,  297. 

protection,  296. 
Eyeballs,  299. 

function  of  parts,  301. 

membranes,  299. 
Eyebrows,  296. 
Eyelashes,  297. 
Eyelids,  296. 


FAINTING,  352. 

Fat,  203. 

Fatty  foods,  where  digested,  73. 

Femur,  172. 

Fermentation,  42. 

Fibula,  172. 

Fire,  to  extinguish,  351. 

Fish  hook,  to  remove,  355. 

Foods,  17. 

amount,  36. 

classification,  18. 


Foods, 

inorganic,  18. 

nitrogenous,  23. 

non-nitrogenous,  23,  31. 

uses,  17. 

varieties,  36. 
Foot,  arch  of,  173. 
Form,  good,  163. 
Fractures,  353. 
Freezing,  355. 
Frost  bite,  355. 
Fruits,  30. 


GALL  bladder,  76. 
Gastric  catarrh,  79 
Gastric  juice,  72. 
Germs,  361. 
Glottis,  126. 
Glucose.  35. 
Grains,  27. 
Grape  sugar,  35. 


HABIT,  275. 
Hair,  211. 

muscle,  213. 
Hair-sac,  213. 

Hairs,  different  animals,  212. 
Healthy  body,  278. 
Hearing,  31 G. 

value,  322. 
Heart,  103. 

auricles,  104. 

beer-drinker's,  119. 

cavities,  104. 

contractions,  106. 

course  of  blood  through,  107 

effects  of  alcohol,  118. 
tobacco,  121. 

fatty,  119. 

force  of,  117. 

position,  103. 

pulsations,  109. 

sounds,  111. 

work  and  rest,  110. 
Heat,  drv,  356. 

moist,  356. 
Heating,  144. 
Heredity,  277. 
Horseback  riding,  194. 
Humerus,  170. 
Hysterics,  356. 


INFLUENZA,  366. 

Insanity,  from  alcohol,  52,  292. 

Insomnia,  281. 


374 


INDEX. 


Inspiration,  133. 

Intestine,  absorption  from,  87. 

large,  60. 

small,  60. 

structure,  85. 
Intestinal  juice,  77. 
Isolation,  368. 


JAUNDICE,  76. 
Joints,  173. 

varieties,  174-177. 


KIDNEYS,  151. 

diseases,  from  cold,  154. 
effects  of  alcohol,  154. 
excretory  organs,  153. 
structure,  152. 


LACHRYMAL,,  fluid,  298. 

glands,  297. 
Lacteals,  88. 

of  intestine,  85. 
Laryngoscope,  127. 
Larynx,  125. 
Ligaments,  173. 
Lime,  21. 
Liver,  76. 

drunkard's,  81. 
Liver  sugar,  77. 
Long-sightedness,  302. 
Lungs,  131. 

effects  of  alcohol,  137. 
tobacco,  137. 

excretory  organs,  137. 

why  air  enters,  131. 
Lymph,  88. 

corpuscles,  89. 
Lymphatic  glands,  88. 
Lymphatics,  88. 

of  intestine,  85. 


MAPLE  sugar,  35. 
Marrow,  of  bone,  158. 
Mastication,  60. 
Measles,  368. 
Meats,  26. 
Medulla  oblongata,  262. 

centers  in,  269. 

function,  269. 
Mental  labor,  278. 
Micro  organisms,  40. 
Milk,  24. 

sugar  of,  35. 

where  digested,  72. 


Mind,  affected  by  alcohol,  291. 

and  body, 269. 

exercise,  278. 
Molds,  43. 

Mouth  breathing,  125. 
Mumps,  66. 
Muscles,  180. 

contraction,  184. 

control,  187. 

growth  of,  188. 

harmonious  action,  187. 

involuntary,  183. 

strength  of,  186. 

uses,  181. 

varieties,  180. 

voluntary,  181. 

work  and  rest,  186. 
Mustard  plaster,  356. 


NAILS,  214. 
Nasal  cavities,  124. 

duct,  298.  ' 
Nerve,  a,  257. 

cells,  255. 

current,  267. 

fibers,  256. 

tissue,  255. 
Nervous  systems,  health  for,  277 

two,  253. 

Nicotine,  16,  82,  121. 
Night  air,  147. 
Nose,  311. 

foreign  bodies  in,  355. 
Nosebleed,  349. 


OAT  starch,  33. 
Oats,  29. 
(Esophagus,  59. 
Olfactory  nerve,  312. 
Opium,  effects,  250. 

digestion,  83. 
nervous  system,  294. 

habit,  250. 

preparations,  251. 
Optic  nerve,  300. 
Oxygen,  97. 

supports  life,  140. 
Oysters,  27. 


PAIN,  327. 
Pancreas,  77. 
Pancreatic  juice,  77. 
Parotid  glands,66. 
Patella,  173. 
Patent  medicines,  251. 


INDEX. 


Pelvis,  bones  of,  172. 
Pericardium,  103. 
Periosteum,  156. 
Perspiration,  208. 

affected,  210. 

checking,  211. 

controlled,  210. 

object,  211. 
Pharynx,  59,  68. 
Physiognomy,  196. 
Plasma,  of  blood,  94. 
Pleura,  130. 
Pneumonia,  366. 
Poison,  52,  357. 
Portal  vein,  87. 
Potash,  22. 
Potato  starch,  34. 
Potatoes,  29. 

Poverty,  from  alcohol,  54,  335. 
Pressure,  sense,  326. 
Ptyalin,  67. 

Pulsations,  of  heart,  109. 
Pulse,  111. 
Pvloric  opening,  70. 
Pylorus,  71. 


RADIUS,  171. 
Reflex  action,  272. 

acquired,  274 

importance,  274. 

nerve  current,  273. 
Respiration,  135. 

artificial,  344. 
Respiratory  center,  270. 
Rest,  279. 
Ribs,  169. 
Rice,  29. 
Rowing,  194. 


SALIVA,  66. 

cells,  66. 

uses,  67. 

Salivary  glands,  66. 
Salt,  18. 
Scapula,  170. 
Scarlet  fever,  368. 
Sebaceous  glands,  214. 
Sensation,  common,  327. 
Sewer  gas,  147. 
Shock,  359. 

Short-sightedness,  302. 
Skeleton,  object,  164. 
Skin,  202. 

checking  action,  211. 

coloring,  205. 
Skull,  165. 


Sleep,  280. 

needed  much,  281. 

to  promote.  281. 
Small-pox,  368. 
Smell,  312. 

affected,  313. 

developed  highly,  313,  314, 

uses,  314. 

Sneezing  center,  270. 
Soda,  22. 
Soups,  38. 
Spinal  column,  165. 

cord,  263. 

nerves,  264. 
Sprains,  359. 
Standing,  188. 
Starch,  27,  32. 
Starch  grains,  32. 
Stings,  of  insects,  360. 
Stomach,  59,  70. 

digestion,  72. 

effects  of  alcohol,  79. 

glands,  76. 

movements,  73. 
Strength,  and  alcohol,  198. 
Stunning,  359. 
Sugar,  35. 
Sun  stroke,  360. 
Swallowing,  69. 
Sweat  glands,  207. 
Sylvester's  method,  345. 
Sympathetic  system,  255 
Svnovial  fluid,  173. 


TACTILE  bodies,  206. 
Taste,  309. 

and  tobacco,  310. 

buds,  308. 

sense,  309. 

smell,  309. 
Tea,  83,  252. 
Tears,  298. 
Teeth,  61. 

arrangement,  62,  63. 

care  for,  65. 

decay  of,  66. 

development,  62. 

fish,  horse,  serpent,  61. 

growth,  62. 

shape,  63. 

structure,  63. 

two  sets,  62. 

varieties,  63. 
Temperature,  and  alcohol,  230, 

bodily,  226. 

lowering,  228. 

raising,  229. 


376 


INDEX. 


Temperature, 

regulation,  227. 
sense,  325. 
Tendons,  183. 
Thoracic  cavity,  169. 

duct,  89. 

Throat,  foreign  bodies  in,  355. 
Tibia,  172. 
Tobacco,  233. 

effects  on  appetite,  233. 
digestion,  82. 
eyes,  305. 
heart,  121. 
lungs,  138. 
morals,  239. 
nervous  system,  233. 
scholarship,  237. 
taste,  310. 

expensive  habit,  235. 
filthy  habit,  235. 
opium  habit,  234. 
strong  drink,  234. 
unlawful,  236. 

what  it  costs,  in  money,  246. 
•  the  body,  240. 
the  mind,  243. 
Tongue,  306. 
Touch,  323. 

corpuscles,  323. 
in  lower  animals,  325. 
sense,  323. 
Trachea,  128. 
Transfusion,  93. 
Tympanic  membrane,  317 
Typhoid  fever,  367. 


ULNA,  170, 
Urea,  153. 


VASO-MOTOR  centre,  270. 
Vegetables,  where  digested,  73. 
Veins,  114,  117. 
Venous  blood,  96. 
Ventilation,  proper,  144. 

improper,  146. 
Ventricles,  capacity,  107. 

of  heart,  105. 

strength,  109. 
Vertebrce,  166. 
Villi,  of  intestine,  85. 
Vocal  cords,  126. 


WALKING,  194. 
Water,  19. 

purity,  21. 

source,  20. 
Weight,  sense,  326. 
Wheat  flour,  27. 

starch,  32. 
Whiskey,  48. 
Whooping-cough,  368. 
Wine.  45. 
Winking,  297. 
Work  and  rest,  193 
Wounds,  346. 


YEAST,  42. 


THE  HEALTH  SERIES  OF  SCHOOL  PHYSIOLOGIES, 

EMBRACING 


primer  of 

5ot)£,  ant. 

essentials  of 


BY  CHARLES  H.  STOWELL,  M.D., 

Formerly  Professor  of  Histology  and  Microscopy  in  the  University  of 

Michigan,  Editor  and  Publisher  of  "  The  National  Medical 

Review"  Washington,  D.C. 


f\  S  a  teacher  of  recognized  ability,  a  physician  of  highest 
1^1  standing,  an  original  investigator  along  physiological 
f  lines,  and  a  popular  writer  on  medical  subjects,  Dr. 
Stowell  was  pre-eminently  fitted  to  prepare  a  series  of  scientific, 
popular,  and  teachable  Physiologies.  He  has  an  excellent 
literary  style,  an  interesting  way  of  presenting  his  subject,  and 
a  clear  conception  of  the  best  method  of  adapting  the  facts  to 
be  taught  to  the  age  and  growing  intelligence  of  the  pupils  for 
whom  his  work  was  intended.  His  statements,  made  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  scientist,  challenging  contradiction,  are 
presented  in  an  easy,  popular  style  that  enables  the  pupil  to 
grasp  the  facts  before  interest  is  lost  in  an  effort  to  understand 
the  terms.  He  knows  how  to  arouse  and  to  hold  attention,  —  a 
rare  quality  in  a  writer  on  any  subject.  Indeed,  the  diction  of 
Dr.  StowelFs  different  books  is  so  carefully  chosen,  with  refer- 


ence  to  the  vocabulary  familiar  to  children  at  different  stages, 
that  this  series  has  been  successfully  used  in  many  progressive 
schools  as  Supplementary  Readers. 

Three  Remarkable  Text-Books. 

The  aim  throughout  the  HEALTH  SERIES  OF  SCHOOL  PHYSI- 
OLOGIES is,  as  the  titles  of  the  books  indicate,  instruction  in 
the  Science  of  Health.  The  marked  favor  with  which  this 
series  has  been  received  is  due  in  large  measure  to  the  con- 
sistent and  logical  manner  in  which  the  author  has  constantly 
kept  before  pupils  his  principal  subject,  —  the  health  of  the 
body.  Dr.  Stowell,  in  his  Health  Series,  has  shown  that  the 
most  approved  normal  methods  may  be  as  successfully  carried 
out  in  the  elementary  treatment  of  this  as  of  any  other  science. 

A  Primer  of  Health  . . . 

For  Primary  Classes,  with  special  reference  to  the 
•Effects  of  Alcoholic  Drinks  and  Tobacco  upon  the 
Human  System.  By  Charles  H.  Stowell,  M.D.  Fully 
illustrated  with  original  sketches  by  the  author.  Intro= 
ductory  price,  30  cents. 

Beginning  with  the  growing  child  hardly  beyond  its  kindergarten 
training,  the  author  arouses  in  "  A  Primer  of  Health  "  an  interest  which 
amounts  almost  to  a  fascination.  While  not  ignoring  the  few  facts  of 
anatomy  that  can  be  readily  understood  even  in  this  grade,  the  attention 
is  directed  to  the  beauty,  the  use,  and  the  care  of  the  body,  and  in  doing 
this  the  same  methods  are  used  that  would  be  employed  in  observing  a 
beautiful  building,  picture,  or  flower. 

In  scope,  it  presents  elementary  facts  only,  a  large  proportion  of 
which  relate  to  the  preservation  of  health,  special  attention  being  given 
to  food,  exercise,  and  cleanliness,  with  chapters  on  the  more  noticeable 
effects  of  alcohol  and  narcotics.  The  book  is  divided  into  short  chapters 
properly  paragraphed,  each  of  which  is  followed  by  a  series  of  carefully 
prepared  questions  on  the  subject-matter. 

TESTIMONIALS. 

P.  S.  Gallagher,  Superintendent  County  Schools,  Benson,  Minn.:  Dr. 
Stoweil's  "A  Primer  of  Health"  I  have  examined,  and  am  very  much  pleased 
with  the  outline  used  by  the  author  for  primary  work. 


William  A.  Mowry,  Late  Member  of  the  Boston  School  Board:  The 
"  Primer  of  Health  "  covers  the  ground  most  difficult  for  a  text-book  upon  this 
subject.  The  author  has  evidently  succeeded  unusually  well  in  presenting  the 
several  subjects  considered  in  such  a  manner  that  the  facts  and  statements  are  both 
easily  comprehended  and  made  interesting  to  young  minds. 

Mrs.  O.  H.  Stilson,  County  Superintendent,  Grand  Rapids,  Minn,:  I 
am  making  use  of  Sto well's  "  A  Primer  of  Health  "  in  my  primary  grade,  and  my 
little  folks  are  delighted  with  it. 

A.  M.  Sperry,  County  Sriperintendent,  Mantorville,  Minn.:  I  have 
read  through  very  carefully  your  Stowell's  "A  Primer  of  Health"  with  a  view  to 
determining  its  fitness  for  a  place  on  our  list  of  free  text-books.  I  am  impressed 
with  its  simplicity  and  directness  of  style  and  earnestness  of  purpose  ;  while  in 
fearlessness  of  statement  upon  the  vital  subjects  of  alcohol  and  tobacco  it  stands 
first  among  the  many  I  have  read  upon  the  same  subjects. 


A  Healthy  Body  .  . . 


A  Text=Book  on  Anatomy,  Physiology,  Hygiene, 
Alcohol,  and  Narcotics.  For  use  in  Intermediate  and 
Grammar  Grades  in  Public  and  Private  Schools.  By 
Charles  H.  Stowell,  M.  D.  Fully  illustrated  with 
original  sketches  by  the  author.  Introductory  price, 
50  cents. 

In  this  second  book  of  The  Health  Series  the  subject  broadens  and 
deepens.  Many  of  the  facts  which  had  interested  the  child  in  the 
preceding  book  are  enlarged  upon,  and  more  complicated  phases  of  the 
general  subject  are  taken  up. 

Like  the  Primer,  "  A  Healthy  Body  "  presents  the  fundamental  facts 
of  anatomy  and  physiology,  though  in  greater  detail.  Special  attention 
is  given  to  the  laws  of  health,  and  to  the  effects  of  alcohol  and  narcotics. 
In  the  preparation  of  this  work  the  controlling  motive  has  been  the 
belief  that  the  study  of  the  human  body,  together  with  the  effects  of 
alcohol  upon  it,  will  do  much  to  make  the  coming  generation  wise, 
temperate,  and  moral. 

In  plan,  the  book  is  arranged  in  chapters  with  paragraphs  set  out  in 
full-face  side  heads,  making  it  easy  for  reference  and  convenient  for  the 
assignment  of  lessons.  The  chapters  are  followed  by  appropriate  ques- 
tions on  the  subject-matter.  The  work  contains  a  full  index. 

TESTIMONIALS. 

Prof.  S.  M.  Inglis,  Southern  Illinois  Normal  University,  Carbondale, 
III.:  I  regard  "A  Healthy  Body,"  by  Stowell,  as  one  of  the  best  books  I  have 
ever  examined  for  our  common  schools.  It  is  clear,  concise,  and  replete  with  all 
that  is  needed  in  our  intermediate  and  grammar  grades.  It  is  thoroughly  practical, 
and  complies  with  the  law  requiring  instruction  in  our  common  schools  in  regard 
to  the  use  of  alcoholic  stimulants  and  their  effects  on  the  human  body. 

M.  T.  Prichard,  Master  of  Everett  School,  Boston,  Mass.:  We  are  using 
Stowell's  "A  Healthy  Body"  in  some  of  our  classes,  and  find  it  to  be  in  every 
way  a  satisfactory  book.  The  author  appeals  directly  to  the  experience  of  the 
student,  and  treats  the  subject-matter  in  a  lucid  and  comprehensible  manner. 


The  Essentials  of  Health  .  .  . 

A  Text=Book  on  Anatomy,  Physiology,  Hygiene, 
Alcohol,  and  Narcotics.  For  use  in  Advanced  Grades 
in  Public  and  Private  Schools.  By  Charles  H.  Stowell, 
M.D.  Illustrated  with  original  sketches  by  the  author. 
Introductory  price,  84  cents. 

"The  Essentials  of  Health"  meets  the  requirements  of  advanced  grammar 
grades  in  schools,  public  and  private,  of  high  schools,  and  of  academies.  This 
book  affords  a  still  more  complete  treatment  of  anatomy,  physiology,  and  hygiene, 
beginning  with  "Cells"  and  ending  with  "Emergencies^"  or  "What  to  do 
before  the  Doctor  Comes."  The  foundation  of  physiological  study  is  securely 
and  intelligently  laid ;  physiology  is  so  clearly  treated  that  the  laws  of  health  may 
be  easily  comprehended ;  hygiene  is  so  comprehensively  discussed  that  ignorance 
of  its  laws  is  inexcusable ;  while  the  effects  of  alcohol  and  narcotics  on  the  grow- 
ing body  are  presented  with  moderation  yet  with  convincing  force. 

TESTIMONIALS. 

James  Henry  Smith,  Professor  of  Natural  Science,  Baldwin  University,  Berea, 
Ohio :  "  The  Essentials  of  Health  "  is  written  in  an  easy,  pleasing  style.  The  statements 
are  accurate.  The  illustrations  are  numerous.  They  will  be  a  great  aid  to  students.  Be- 
ing  a  successful  teacher,  Dr.  Stowell  knows  how  to  write  for  students  ;  being  a  successful 
practitioner,  he  is  able  to  give  sound  hygienic  advice. 

C.  L.  Hunt,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Clinton,  Mass. :  I  regard  Stowell's  Series 
of  Physiologies  as  the  best  yet  known  to  me,  in  all  the  points  needful  in  a  text-book  on 
that  subject  tc  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  children. 
X 

A  Handbook  of  Simple  Experiments 
in  Physiology  .  .  . 

For  the  use  of  Teachers.  By  Charles  H.  Stowell,  M.D. 
Original  illustrations.  Introductory  price,  36  cents. 

This  "  Handbook,"  while  especially  adapted  to  illustrate  the  teachings  of  the 
"Health  Series  of  School  Physiologies,"  can  also  be  advantageously  employed 
with  other  text-books.  The  experiments  can  be  readily  performed  by  teachers 
who  have  had"  no  laboratory  training  and  must  work  without  apparatus.  The 
directions  are  so  clear  and  specific  as  to  render  the  book  also  an  admirable 
working  guide  for  pupils'  use,  where  there  is  opportunity  for  them  to  do  simple 
laboratory  work. 

The  "  Handbook"  also  contains  three  valuable  chapters  on  the  microscope  and 
physiological  experiments  to  be  performed  with  it.  Attention  is  invited  to  the 
Health  Series  Microscope,  —  a  very  superior  instrument,  especially  designed 
for  school  use.  With  it  are  furnished  twelve  high-grade  specimens,  showing  the 
different  parts  of  the  human  body.  The  Microscope,  with  full  outfit,  packed  in  a 
handsome  case,  will  be  supplied  to  schools  only  at  $32.00  net. 


Catalogues  and  circulars  descriptive  of  all  our  Educational  Publications 
mailed  free  on  application.     Correspondence  respectfully  solicited. 

SILVER,  BURDETT  &  COMPANY,  Publishers, 

Boston.  New  York.  Chicago. 


TTY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIB! 


LB    600DU 


, 


